Catalogue Query Results
Howardia biclavis (Comstock)NOMENCLATURE:
Chionaspis? biclavis Comstock, 1883: 98-100. Type data: United States: Washington D.C., Department of Agriculture conservatory, on Diospyrus ebenum, Ficus laurifolia, Tamarindus sp., Ochras sapota and Etaecarpus cyanus. Syntypes, female (examined). Type depository: Washington: United States National Entomological Collection, U.S. National Museum of Natural History, District of Columbia, USA. Described: female. Illust.
Aspidiotus theae; Green, 1890: 13. Misidentification; discovered by Ferris, 1941e: 49.
Chionaspis biclavis detecta Maskell, 1895b: 49. Type data: SANDWICH ISLANDS: Hawaii, Kona.. Type depositories: London: The Natural History Museum, England, UK, Auckland: New Zealand Arthropod Collection, Landcare Research, New Zealand, and Washington: United States National Entomological Collection, U.S. National Museum of Natural History, District of Columbia, USA. Synonymy by Borchsenius, 1966: 156.
Howardia biclavis; Berlese & Leonardi, 1896: 348. Change of combination.
Chionaspis (Howardia) biclavis; Maxwell-Lefroy, 1902: 250. Change of combination.
Howardia biclavis detecta; Fernald, 1903b: 227. Change of combination.
Megalodiaspis biclavis; Paoli, 1915: 256. Change of combination.
Howardia (Chionaspis) biclavis; Ramakrishna Ayyar, 1921a: 353. Change of combination.
COMMON NAMES: Burrowing scale [Borchs1966]; Mining scale [Comsto1883].
FOES: DIPTERA Cecidomyiidae: Dyodiplosis generosi [Fulmek1943]. HYMENOPTERA Aphelinidae: Aphelinus theae [Morley1909], Aphytis fuscipennis [Balach1954e], Aphytis proclia [Balach1954e], Pteroptrix imitatrix [Fulmek1943]. Encyrtidae: Plagiomerus sp. [Simmon1957]. THYSANOPTERA Phlaeothripidae: Haplothrips merilli [Fulmek1943].
HOSTS: Acanthaceae: Graptophyllum pictum [Ballou1926], Justicia sp. [Borchs1966], Strobilanthes isophyllus [MacGow1982], Thunbergia grandiflora [MestreHaEv2011]. Amaranthaceae: Alternanthera sp. [MillerDa2005], Iresine sp. [HodgsoHi1990]. Anacardiaceae: Cotinus sp. [HodgsoHi1990], Dodonaea sp. [HodgsoHi1990], Mangifera indica [Ballou1926], Mangifera sp. [MillerDa2005], Rhus leucantha [Ballou1926], Schinus sp. [HodgsoHi1990], Toxicodendron sp. [HodgsoHi1990]. Annonaceae: Annona muricata [Morgan1892], Annona reticulata [Mamet1949], Annona sp. [MillerDa2005], Annona squamosa [Marlat1921a], Cananga sp. [MillerDa2005], Monodora sp. [MillerDa2005], Polyalthia longifolia [Sankar1984]. Apocynaceae: Allamanda cathartica schottia [Cohic1958], Allamanda hendersonii [Ballou1926], Allamanda sp. [MillerDa2005], Annodendron sp. [MillerDa2005], Dischidia sp. [MillerDa2005], Echites melaleuca [Archan1929], Landolphia florida [Archan1929], Landolphia heudelotii [Archan1929], Nerium oleander [ColonFMe1998], Plumeria alba [Cohic1958], Plumeria sp. [MillerDa2005], Tabernaemontana citrifolia [Ballou1926], Tabernaemontana coronaria [Maxwel1902], Tabernaemontana sp. [MillerDa2005], Trachelospermum jasminoides [Kuwana1909a]. Aquifoliaceae: Ilex riedlaei [ColonFMe1998]. Araceae: Monstera sp. [MillerDa2005]. Araliaceae: Centella sp. [MillerDa2005]. Arecaceae: Chrysalidocarpus lutescenses [ColonFMe1998]. Asteraceae: Artemisia abrotanum [Ballou1926], Centaurea sp. [MillerDa2005], Cosmos caudatus [ColonFMe1998], Eupatorium sp. [HodgsoHi1990], Microglossa zeylanica [Ali1969a], Tithonia diversifolia [Mamet1943a], Tithonia sp. [Borchs1966]. Begoniaceae: Begonia sp. [Borchs1966]. Bignoniaceae: Bignonia sp. [Brain1919], Delostoma sp. [MillerDa2005], Spathodea sp. [MillerDa2005], Tabebuia sp. [MillerDa2005], Tecomaria capensis [Ballou1926]. Bixaceae: Bixa orellana [Ballou1926], Bixa sp. [MillerDa2005]. Bombacaceae: Matisia cordata [Mosque1976]. Boraginaceae: Cordia polycephala [ColonFMe1998], Cordia sp. [MillerDa2005]. Buddlejaceae: Buddleia davidii [Ballou1926]. Burseraceae: Bursera gummifera [Ballou1926]. Calycanthaceae: Calycanthus sp. [MillerDa2005]. Capparaceae: Steriphoma sp. [MillerDa2005]. Caprifoliaceae: Lonicera sp. [Borchs1966, MillerDa2005]. Caricaceae: Carica papaya [Mamet1943a], Carica sp. [MillerDa2005]. Caryocaraceae: Caryocar sp. [MillerDa2005]. Cassiaceae: Cassia sp. [HodgsoHi1990]. Casuarinaceae: Casuarina sp. [Borchs1966, MillerDa2005]. Celastraceae: Euonymus sp. [HodgsoHi1990]. Chrysobalanaceae: Licania sp. [MillerDa2005], Parinari laurinum [Hinckl1963]. Clusiaceae: Clusia sp. [MillerDa2005], Mammea sp. [MillerDa2005]. Combretaceae: Combretum micropetalum [Archan1929], Quisqualis indica [Ballou1926], Terminalia catappa [Kuwana1909a], Terminalia sp. [MillerDa2005], Terminalia tomentosa [Balach1954e]. Convolvulaceae: Ipomea tiliacea [ColonFMe1998]. Ebenaceae: Diospyros ebenum [Comsto1883], Royena sp. [Borchs1966]. Ehretiaceae: Cordia interrupta [Mamet1943a], Cordia macrostachya [Mamet1949]. Elaeocarpaceae: Elaeocarpus sp. [MillerDa2005]. Erythroxylaceae: Erythroxylum sp. [MillerDa2005]. Euphorbiaceae: Acalypha grandis [Mamet1943a], Acalypha sp. [Maxwel1902], Codiaeum variegatum [ColonFMe1998], Croton discolor [Maxwel1902], Croton lucidus [Ballou1926], Croton sp. [MillerDa2005], Croton sp. [LincanHoCa2010], Euphorbia sp. [Borchs1966, MillerDa2005], Hippomane mancinella [Ballou1926], Hippomane sp. [Mosque1976], Mabea buxifolia [Kuwana1909a], Macaranga sp. [Hinckl1963], Poinsettia sp. [Brain1919], Sapium sp. [Borchs1966, MillerDa2005]. Fabaceae: Acacia macracantha [LincanHoCa2010], Acacia melissima [Hinckl1963], Acacia sp. [MillerDa2005], Andira inermis [ColonFMe1998], Bauhinia monandra [ColonFMe1998], Bauhinia purpurea [DeLott1967a], Bauhinia sp. [MillerDa2005], Bauhinia variegata [Ballou1926], Caesalpinia sp. [MillerDa2005], Cajanus cajan [Brown1965], Derris sp. [MillerDa2005], Desmodium incanum [ColonFMe1998], Erythrina sp. [MillerDa2005], Hymenaea sp. [MillerDa2005], Indigophora [Watson2002a], Inga laurina [ColonFMe1998], Inga sp. [MillerDa2005], Leucaena leucocephala [MestreHaEv2011], Leucaena sp. [Borchs1966, MillerDa2005], Mundulea suberosa [Cohic1958], Pithecellobium dulce [ColonFMe1998], Pongamia sp. [MillerDa2005], Pterocarpus indicus [ColonFMe1998], Tamarindus sp. [Comsto1883], Wisteria sp. [Borchs1966, MillerDa2005]. Fagaceae: Castanea sp. [Borchs1966]. Flacourtiaceae: Casearia sylvestris [ColonFMe1998], Flacourtia sp. [Borchs1966], Hydnocarpus sp. [Borchs1966], Hydnocarpus wightiana [Mamet1943a]. Gesneriaceae: Gesneria pedunculosa [ColonFMe1998]. Guttiferae: Ascyrum sp. [HodgsoHi1990], Calophyllum brasiliense [ColonFMe1998], Calophyllum calaba [MestreHaEv2011], Calophyllum sp. [Hinckl1963], Clusia flava [Balach1954e], Clusia lacuma nervosa [Hua2000], Clusia rosea [ColonFMe1998], Mammea americana [Beatty1944, DonesEv2011]. Juglandaceae: Jatropha hastata [Ballou1926], Juglans sp. [Borchs1966]. Labiatae: Plectranthus amboinicus [ColonFMe1998]. Lauraceae: Cinnamomum sp. [Borchs1966, MillerDa2005], Ocotea leucoxylon [ColonFMe1998], Persea americana [ColonFMe1998], Persea sp. [MillerDa2005], Phoebe sp. [MillerDa2005]. Loranthaceae: Loranthus sp. [MillerDa2005]. Lythraceae: Cuphea sp. [HodgsoHi1990], Lagerstroemia indica [Kuwana1909a], Punica sp. [MillerDa2005]. Malpighiaceae: Malphigia sp. [HodgsoHi1990]. Malvaceae: Althaea sp. [HodgsoHi1990], Hibiscus mutabilis [Ballou1926], Hibiscus rosasinensis [Mamet1943a], Hibiscus sp. [Simmon1957, MillerDa2005], Hibiscus syriacus [Ballou1926], Hibiscus tiliaceus [Kuwana1909a], Matisia sp. [MillerDa2005], Montezuma sp. [MillerDa2005], Pachira sp. [MillerDa2005], Sida sp. [Watson2002a], Theobroma sp. [MillerDa2005], Urena sp. [Watson2002a], Waltheria ovata [LincanHoCa2010], Waltheria sp. [MillerDa2005]. Melastomaceae: Miconia laevigata [ColonFMe1998]. Meliaceae: Cedrela sp. [MillerDa2005], Guarea guidonia [ColonFMe1998], Khaya sp. [Watson2002a], Melia azederach [Simmon1957], Swietenia sp. [Watson2002a], Trichilia sp. [Brain1919, MillerDa2005]. Moraceae: Artocarpus integrifolia [Kuwana1909a], Ficus benjamina [Morgan1892], Ficus carica [Ballou1926], Ficus laurifolia [Comsto1883], Ficus parcellii [Ballou1926], Ficus sp. [MillerDa2005], Morus nigra [Ballou1926]. Moringaceae: Microcitrus australasica [Ballou1926], Moringa oleifera [Mamet1943a], Moringa pterygosperma [Ballou1926]. Myricaceae: Myrica sp. [MillerDa2005]. Myristicaceae: Myristica macrantha [Hinckl1963]. Myrtaceae: Metrosideros sp. [Brown1965], Myrica cerifera [BesheaTiHo1973], Psidium guajava [ColonFMe1998], Psidium sp. [MillerDa2005], Syzygium cleyeraefolium [Kuwana1909a]. Nyctaginaceae: Bougainvillea sp. [MillerDa2005]. Ochnaceae: Ochna sopata [Comsto1883]. Oleaceae: Jacobinia mohintli [Ballou1926], Jasminum humile [Ballou1926], Jasminum sambac [Cohic1958], Jasminum simplicifolius [Ballou1926], Jasminum sp. [MillerDa2005], Jasminum trifoliatum [Ballou1926], Ligustrum sp. [Borchs1966, MillerDa2005], Olea europaea [Kuwana1909a]. Onagraceae: Raimannia sp. [HodgsoHi1990]. Passifloraceae: Passiflora laurifolia [ColonFMe1998], Passiflora sp. [MillerDa2005]. Phytolaccaceae: Phytolaca rivinoides [ColonFMe1998]. Piperaceae: Piper aduncum [ColonFMe1998], Piper methysticum [WilliaBu1987], Piper nigrum [Tao1999], Piper rivinoides [Archan1929], Piper sp. [MillerDa2005]. Pittosporaceae: Pittosporum sp. [HodgsoHi1990]. Polygonaceae: Antigonon sp. [MillerDa2005]. Proteaceae: Grevillea robusta [Mamet1949], Grevillea sp. [MillerDa2005], Macadamia sp. [Willia1973, MillerDa2005], Macadamia ternifolia [Willia1973]. Punicaceae: Punica granatum [Kuwana1909a]. Rosaceae: Cydonia oblonga [Ballou1926], Malus pumila [Hua2000], Malus sp. [Borchs1966, MillerDa2005], Osteomeles anthyllidifolia [Kuwana1909a], Photinia sp. [MillerDa2005], Photinia wrightiana [Kuwana1909a], Prunus sp. [Watson2002a, MillerDa2005], Pyracantha sp. [MillerDa2005], Pyrus sp. [Borchs1966, MillerDa2005], Raphiolepis sp. [Brain1919]. Rubiaceae: Catesbaea spinosa [Ballou1926], Chiococca sp. [HodgsoHi1990], Cinchona sp. [MillerDa2005], Cinchona succirubra [DEDAC1923], Coffea arabica [Ballou1926], Coffea sp. [MillerDa2005], Gardenia augusta [ColonFMe1998], Gardenia florida [Ballou1926], Gardenia sp. [Hinckl1963, MillerDa2005], Genipa caruto [Ballou1926], Genipa sp. [MillerDa2005], Guettarda scabra [FDACSB1983], Ixora bandhuca [Ballou1926], Ixora coccinea [ColonFMe1998], Ixora sp. [BesheaTiHo1973, MillerDa2005], Morinda sp. [Borchs1966], Mussaenda sp. [MillerDa2005], Psychotria uliginosa [ColonFMe1998], Randia aculeata [ColonFMe1998], Randia sp. [MillerDa2005]. Rutaceae: Citrus aurantifolia [ColonFMe1998], Citrus limon [ColonFMe1998], Citrus medica [ColonFMe1998], Citrus sinensis [LincanHoCa2010], Citrus sp. [MillerDa2005], Feroniella sp. [MillerDa2005], Murraya exotica [Ballou1926], Ruta chalepensis [Ballou1926]. Salicaceae: Casearia sp. [MillerDa2005], Dovyalis sp. [MillerDa2005]. Sapindaceae: Blighia sapida [Ballou1926], Cupania sp. [Borchs1966, MillerDa2005], Elaeocarpus sp. [Borchs1966], Litchi sp. [Watson2002a, MillerDa2005], Melicoccus bijugatus [ColonFMe1998], Nephelium longan [HowellBeTi1986], Nephelium sp. [MillerDa2005], Thouinia strata [ColonFMe1998]. Sapotaceae: Achras sapota [Marlat1921a], Achras sp. [MillerDa2005], Achras zapota [Cohic1958], Chrysophyllum cainito [Ballou1926], Chrysophyllum sp. [MillerDa2005], Lucuma mammosa [Ballou1926], Lucuma nervosa [Ballou1926], Lucuma serpentaria [Ballou1926], Lucuma sp. [MillerDa2005], Manilkara bidentata [ColonFMe1998], Manilkara sp. [MillerDa2005], Manilkara zapota [ColonFMe1998], Micropholis crysophylioides [ColonFMe1998], Mimusops sp. [MillerDa2005], Sideroxylon ferrugineum [Kuwana1909a]. Solanaceae: Brunfelsia nitida [Ballou1926], Brunsfelsia sp. [MillerDa2005], Cestrum diurnum [Ballou1926], Datura suaveolens [ColonFMe1998], Lycopersicon [Watson2002a], Solanum melangena [Ballou1926], Solanum seaforthianum [Ballou1926], Solanum sp. [ColonFMe1998]. Theaceae: Camellia sinensis [Tao1999], Camellia sp. [MillerDa2005], Thea sp. [Borchs1966]. Tiliaceae: Conchorus siliquosus [MestreHaEv2011], Triumfetta semitriloba [ColonFMe1998]. Ulmaceae: Celtis sinensis [Kuwana1909a], Trema micranthum [ColonFMe1998]. Verbenaceae: Citharexylum sp. [HodgsoHi1990], Duranta plumieri [Mamet1943a], Duranta repens [Ballou1926], Duranta sp. [MillerDa2005], Lantana camara [ColonFMe1998], Lantana sp. [MillerDa2005], Lippia stoechadifolia [ColonFMe1998], Nyctanthes sambac [Wilson1921], Petrea sp. [MillerDa2005], Stachytarpheta jamaicensis [ColonFMe1998]. Viscaceae: Phoradendron sp. [Mosque1976]. Vitaceae: Cisuss sicyoides [ColonFMe1998]. Vitidaceae: Parthenocissus sp. [HodgsoHi1990]
DISTRIBUTION: Afrotropical: Ghana [Hall1946a]; Kenya [DeLott1967a]; Madagascar [Mamet1959a]; Mauritius [Mamet1943a, WilliaWi1988]; Rodriques Island [Mamet1956b, WilliaWi1988]; Sao Tome and Principe (Sao Tome [Hall1946a]); South Africa [Brain1919]; Zanzibar [Mamet1943a]; Zimbabwe [Hall1935]. Australasian: Australia (Queensland [Watson2002a]); Bonin Islands (=Ogasawara-Gunto) [Kuwana1909a]; Cook Islands [Watson2002a]; Federated States of Micronesia (Truk Islands [Takaha1942d]); Fiji [Hinckl1963]; French Polynesia (Tahiti [Green1907]); Hawaiian Islands [Maxwel1902, MillerDa2005] (Maui [Nishid2002], Niihau [Nishid2002], Oahu [Nishid2002]); New Caledonia [Cohic1956]; Niue [WilliaWa1988]; Palau [Beards1966]; Papua New Guinea [WilliaWa1988]; Tonga [Lindin1911]; Vanuatu (=New Hebrides) [WilliaBu1987]; Western Samoa [WilliaWa1988]. Nearctic: Mexico [Cocker1899n, MillerDa2005]; United States of America (California [Watson2002a, MillerDa2005] (reported eradicated from California), District of Columbia [Comsto1883], Florida [MerrilCh1923, MillerDa2005], Kansas [Lawson1917], Louisiana [Miller2005], Maryland [Nakaha1982, MillerDa2005], Missouri [Nakaha1982, MillerDa2005], New York [Nakaha1982, MillerDa2005], Ohio [WebsteBu1902, MillerDa2005], Pennsylvania [Trimbl1928, MillerDa2005]). Neotropical: Antigua and Barbuda (Antigua [Maxwel1902]); Argentina (Buenos Aires [Watson2002a]); Bahamas [Marlat1921a]; Barbados [Maxwel1902]; Bermuda [Brown1965]; Brazil [Bondar1914] (Bahia [SilvadGoGa1968], Minas Gerais [SilvadGoGa1968], Rio de Janeiro [SilvadGoGa1968], Sao Paulo [SilvadGoGa1968]); Colombia [Figuer1952, Mosque1976]; Cuba [Ballou1926, MestreHaEv2011]; Dominica [Mamet1943a]; Dominican Republic [GomezM1941]; Ecuador [Nakaha1982]; French Guiana [Nakaha1982]; Galapagos Islands [Willia1977ML, LincanHoCa2010]; Guadeloupe [Vayssi1955]; Guyana [Bodkin1914]; Haiti [BerlesLe1898a]; Jamaica [Brown1965]; Martinique [Vayssi1955]; Montserrat [Maxwel1902]; Panama [Watson2002a]; Peru [Nakaha1982]; Puerto Rico & Vieques Island (Puerto Rico [Maxwel1902, DonesEv2011]); Saint Croix [MiskimBo1970]; Saint Kitts and Nevis Islands (Saint Kitts [Maxwel1902]); Trinidad and Tobago (Trinidad [Maxwel1902]); Venezuela [Ballou1945] [Watson2002a]. Oriental: China (Guangdong (=Kwangtung) [Hua2000], Guangxi (=Kwangsi) [Hua2000], Yunnan [Tao1999]); India [Nakaha1982] (Karnataka [Singh1964], Tamil Nadu [Fletch1919]); Indonesia [Nakaha1982] (Java [Clause1933]); Philippines [Nakaha1982]; Singapore [Nakaha1982]; Sri Lanka [Maxwel1902]; Taiwan [Nakaha1982]. Palaearctic: Czech Republic [Zahrad1953]; France [DanzigPe1998]; Germany [Lindin1909b]; Ireland [Green1934d]; Italy [Leonar1918]; Japan [Tao1999]; Madeira Islands [FrancoRuMa2011]; Poland [Koteja1974b]; Portugal [FrancoRuMa2011]; Russia (St. Petersburg (=Leningrad) Oblast [Archan1929]); Sardinia [Paoli1915]; Spain [DanzigPe1998]; United Kingdom (England [Maxwel1902]).
BIOLOGY: According to Brown (1965) Howardia biclavis reproduces parthenogenetically without males. Kuwana (1911) and Murakami (1970) indicate that it has 1 generation each year in Japan. Of particular interest is the manner in which this pest becomes covered by a thin layer of the host's epidermis. Many comment in the literature about how the scale mines or burrows into the host, but these statements almost certainly are inaccurate since the crawlers have no unusual adaptations for burrowing. It seems more likely that crawlers find cracks in the bark and settle in the bark tissue. As the scale cover enlarges, it slowly forces its way under the epidermal layer. This hypothesis is substantiated by Fennah (1947) who observed that crawlers settle in minute crevices of the bark. To our knowledge, a detailed study of the biology of this species has not been under taken. According to Brown (1965) mining scale reproduces parthenogenetically without males. Kuwana (1911) and Murakami (1970) indicate that it has 1 generation each year in Japan. Of particular interest is the manner in which this pest becomes covered by a thin layer of the host's epidermis. There are many comments in the literature about how the scale mines or burrows into the host, but these statements almost certainly are inaccurate since the crawlers have no unusual adaptations for burrowing. It seems more likely that crawlers find cracks in the bark and settle in the bark tissue. As the scale cover enlarges, it slowly forces its way under the epidermal layer. This hypothesis is substantiated by Fennah (1947) who observed that crawlers settle in minute crevices of the bark. (Miller & Davidson, 2005).
GENERAL REMARKS: Descriptions and illustrations by Comstock (1883) and Balachowsky (1954e).
STRUCTURE: Female scale white, but obscured by tissue of host, nearly circular. Exuviae marginal and project beyond the edge of scale (Comstock, 1883).
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE AND CONTROL: Miller & Davidson (1990) list this insect as a serious and widespread pest. Dekle (1977) reported the mining scale as an economic pest on many woody ornamentals in Florida despite the fact that it often is parasitized. Azevedo Marques (1923) considered it to be an important economic pest of coffee in Brazil, and Plank and Winters (1949) described it as causing heavy damage to Cinchona ledgeriana in Puerto Rico. It also has been reported to cause damage to tea in Sri Lanka (Ramakrishna Ayyar 1930), India, Japan, and Malawi (Nagarkatti and Sankaran 1990), to citrus in Cuba (Grillo et al. 1983), to coffee in Cuba (Köhler et al. 1980), and to macadamia in India (Ebeling 1959). Beardsley and González (1975) consider this scale to be one of 43 serious armored scale pests, and Miller and Davidson (1990) consider it to be a serious world pest. (Miller & Davidson, 2005).
KEYS: Suh & Ji 2009: 1041-1043 (female) [Key to species of armored scales intercepted on imported plants (slide mounted females)]; Wolff & Corseuil 1993a: 153 (female) [Diaspidid species on mango in Brazil]; Williams & Watson 1988: 137 [Key to species of Howardia]; Fullaway 1932: 96 (female) [Key to species of Hawaiian Diaspinae]; Comstock 1916: 559 (female) [as Chionaspis biclavis; Key to species of Chionaspis]; Green 1899a: 108 (female) [as Chionaspis biclavis; Synopsis of Chionaspis species]; Comstock 1881a: 98 [as Chionaspis biclavis; Key to species of Chionaspis].
CITATIONS: AAEE1931 [taxonomy: 1284]; Ali1969a [distribution, host: 51]; AndersWuGr2010 [phylogeny, taxonomy: 997-1003]; Archan1929 [distribution, host: 197]; Arnett1985 [economic importance: 241]; Balach1954e [biological control, description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 252-254]; Ballou1926 [distribution, host: 25-26]; Ballou1945 [distribution, host: 93]; Beards1966 [distribution, host: 533]; Beatty1944 [distribution, host: 126]; BerlesLe1896 [taxonomy: 348]; BerlesLe1898a [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 127-129]; BesheaTiHo1973 [distribution, host: 11]; Bodkin1914 [distribution, host: 114]; BoedigSt1930 [host: 51-52]; Bondar1914 [distribution, host: 1103]; Borchs1937 [taxonomy: 112]; Borchs1937a [taxonomy: 115]; Borchs1950b [distribution, host, taxonomy: 210]; Borchs1966 [catalogue, distribution, host, taxonomy: 156-157]; Boyce1950 [taxonomy: 745]; Brain1919 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 219-220]; Brown1965 [chemistry: 132-137]; BrunerScOt1945 [distribution, host: 76]; Butche1959 [distribution, host: 364]; Chou1982 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 124-125]; Chou1986 [illustration: 525]; Clause1933 [distribution: 16]; Cocker1896a [taxonomy: 256]; Cocker1899n [distribution, host: 30]; Cocker1899r [taxonomy: 900]; Cocker1902p [distribution: 257]; Cohic1956 [distribution, host: 15, 16, 20, 58]; Cohic1958 [distribution, host: 16, 25, 30, 34]; ColonFMe1998 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 100-101]; Comsto1883 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 98-100]; Comsto1916 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 559-561]; CoronaRuMo1997 [distribution, economic importance, host: 40]; CostaL1928 [distribution, host: 119]; CostaL1942 [distribution, host: 272]; Craw1896 [taxonomy: 35, 40]; Danzig1993 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 287]; DanzigPe1998 [catalogue, distribution, host, taxonomy: 275-276]; Dash1916 [distribution, host: 42]; DEDAC1923 [distribution, host: 15]; DeitzTo1980 [distribution, taxonomy: 35]; Dekle1954 [distribution, host: 227]; Dekle1965c [distribution, host, taxonomy: 11, 74]; DeLott1967a [distribution, host: 115]; DeSilv1961 [biological control, distribution: 119]; DodgeRi1943 [distribution, taxonomy: 346]; DonesEv2011 [distribution, host: 2]; Draper1907 [distribution: 10]; FDACSB1983 [distribution, host: 7]; Felt1915 [taxonomy: 183]; Fennah1947 [behaviour, distribution: 65]; Fernal1903b [catalogue, distribution, host, taxonomy: 227]; Ferris1920a [taxonomy: 63]; Ferris1936a [illustration, taxonomy: 21, 22, 28, 60]; Ferris1937 [taxonomy, description, illustration, host, distribution: SI-64-65]; Ferris1941e [taxonomy: 49]; Figuer1952 [distribution: 210]; Fletch1914 [distribution: 519]; Fletch1917a [distribution, host: 34, 37]; Fletch1919 [distribution, host: 297]; Foldi2001 [distribution: 306]; Fonsec1964 [distribution, host: 515]; FrancoRuMa2011 [distribution: 12,24]; Fullaw1932 [distribution, host: 96]; Fulmek1943 [biological control, distribution: 36]; Gill1997 [distribution, illustration, taxonomy: 163, 164]; GomezM1941 [distribution, host: 137]; GrandpCh1899 [distribution, host: 30]; Green1890 [distribution, host: 13]; Green1896 [distribution, host: 2]; Green1899a [distribution, host: 108, 152]; Green1907 [distribution, host: 201]; Green1908a [distribution, host: 36]; Green1922 [distribution, host: 460]; Green1934d [distribution: 114]; Green1937 [distribution: 324]; Hall1935 [distribution, host: 84]; Hall1946a [distribution: 548]; Hart1896a [distribution: vi]; HertinSi1972 [biological control: 181]; Hinckl1963 [distribution, host: 45]; HodgsoHi1990 [distribution, host: 2, 3, 5-7, 9, 12-19,]; HodgsoLa2011 [distribution, host: 24]; Houser1918 [distribution, host: 161]; HowellBeTi1986 [description, distribution, host, illustration: 1-3]; Hua2000 [distribution, host, taxonomy: 153]; Kawai1980 [distribution, taxonomy: 260]; KawaiMaUm1971 [distribution, host: 22]; Kirkal1902 [distribution: 112]; Kirkal1904b [distribution, host: 157]; Koteja1974b [structure: 84]; KozarWa1985 [distribution: 84]; Kuwana1909a [distribution, host: 161]; Kuwana1917a [distribution, host: 16]; Kuwana1926 [distribution, host, taxonomy: 4]; Lamb1974 [distribution, host: 42]; Lawson1917 [distribution, host: 206]; Leonar1918 [description, distribution, taxonomy: 194]; Leonar1920 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 213-215]; Lepage1938 [distribution, host: 262, 408]; LincanHoCa2010 [distribution, host: 5]; Lindin1909b [taxonomy: 223]; Lindin1911 [taxonomy: 177]; Lindin1935 [taxonomy: 148]; Lobdel1937 [structure: 78]; LongoMaPe1995 [distribution: 127]; LongoMaPe1999a [distribution: 149]; Lupo1938a [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 256, 261]; MacGil1921 [catalogue, distribution, host, taxonomy: 363]; MacGow1982 [distribution, host: 10]; Malump2012b [distribution: 213]; Mamet1943a [distribution, host: 161]; Mamet1948 [distribution, host: 12, 13]; Mamet1949 [distribution, host, taxonomy: 38]; Mamet1956b [distribution, host: 305]; Mamet1959a [distribution, host: 380]; Marlat1921a [distribution: 11]; Martor1976 [distribution, host: 43, 56, 84, 168, 253]; Maskel1895b [distribution, host: 49]; Maxwel1902 [distribution, host: 250-251, 299]; Maxwel1903 [description, distribution, host, illustration: 48]; McDani1924 [distribution, host: 41-42]; McDani1931 [distribution, host: 61]; McKenz1956 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 32, 115]; Medler1980 [distribution: 89]; Merril1953 [distribution, host: 50]; MerrilCh1923 [distribution, host: 237]; MestreHaEv2011 [catalogue, distribution, host: 12]; Miller2005 [distribution: 487]; MillerDa1990 [economic importance, taxonomy: 302]; MillerDa2005 [description, distribution, host, economic importance: 234]; MiskimBo1970 [distribution, host: 30]; Morgan1889a [taxonomy: 349]; Morgan1892 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 15, 16]; Morley1909 [biological control: 256]; MorseNo2006 [phylogeny, taxonomy: 340]; Mosque1976 [distribution, host: 41, 89]; MoutiaMa1947 [distribution, host: 10]; MunroFo1936 [distribution, host: 87]; Muraka1970 [distribution, host: 80]; Nakaha1981a [distribution: 399]; Nakaha1982 [distribution, host: 44]; NakahaMi1981 [distribution: 34]; Newste1901b [distribution, host: 180, 190]; Newste1907a [distribution: 10]; Newste1914 [distribution, host: 311]; Nishid2002 [catalogue: 141]; NormarJo2010 [ecology, host: 3]; Pace1939 [host: 665]; Paoli1915 [distribution, host: 256]; Parkin1906 [distribution, host: 33, 56, 66, 69]; PellizGe2010a [distribution, host: 502]; PerezG2008 [distribution: 215]; PooleGe1997 [distribution: 349]; PruthiMa1945 [distribution, host: 8]; Ramakr1919a [distribution, host: 10]; Ramakr1921a [distribution, host: 353]; Ramakr1930 [distribution, host: 15]; RaoCh1950 [taxonomy: 23, 27]; Ronna1933 [distribution, host: 51-53]; Ruhl1930 [biological control, taxonomy: 20]; Russo1927 [distribution, taxonomy: 48, 203, 205]; Ryan1946 [distribution, economic importance: 124]; Sander1904a [distribution, host: 51]; Sankar1984 [biological control, distribution, host: 27]; Sassce1920 [taxonomy: 182]; Schmut1952 [taxonomy: 580]; Schmut1959 [distribution, taxonomy: 204]; ShiLi1991 [host: 164]; SilvadGoGa1968 [distribution, host: 174]; Simmon1957 [biological control, distribution, host: 4]; Singh1964 [distribution, host: 219]; South1910 [distribution: 20]; SuhJi2009 [distribution, illustration, taxonomy: 1039-1054]; Takagi1970 [description, distribution, host, taxonomy: 32]; Takagi1992b [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 44-45, 55, 67, 72]; Takaha1942d [distribution, host: 355]; Tao1999 [distribution, host: 91-92]; Timber1924 [biological control, distribution: 439]; Trimbl1928 [distribution, host: 45]; Varshn2002 [distribution, host: 47]; Vayssi1955 [distribution: 257-267]; Wang1980 [distribution, host: 175]; Wang1982c [distribution, host: 74-76]; Watson2002 [taxonomy: 117]; Watson2002a [biological control, description, distribution, economic importance, host, illustration, taxonomy ]; WatsonBe1937 [host: 15]; WattMa1903 [distribution, host: 309]; WebsteBu1902 [distribution, host: 113]; Willia1960c [taxonomy: 393]; Willia1973 [distribution, host: 91]; Willia1973 [distribution, host: 91]; Willia1977ML [distribution, host: 94]; WilliaBu1987 [distribution, host: 95]; WilliaWa1988 [description, distribution, host, illustration, taxonomy: 137-138, 140]; WilliaWi1988 [distribution, host, taxonomy: 67]; Wilson1917 [distribution, host: 40]; Wilson1921 [taxonomy: 24]; Wolcot1936 [distribution, taxonomy: 134]; WongChCh1999 [distribution, illustration: 26, 67]; Yang1982 [distribution, host: 264, 265]; Zahrad1953 [distribution, host: 143]; Zahrad1990c [distribution, host: 16]; Zimmer1948 [distribution, host: 410].
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