The Scale April 2002

Editors:
Dug Miller & Gary Miller
Systematic Entomol. Lab.
Plant Sciences Institute
Agric. Res. Service, USDA
Building 005, Room 137
BARC-West, Beltsville, MD
20705-2350 USA
FAX 01 301-504-6482
dmiller@sel.barc.usda.gov

Issues from 1996 to the present can be downloaded from the following web page: http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/coccoidea/scaleframe.html

The meeting in Padua, Italy was extraordinary, to say the least. The coccidology community wants to again extend its congratulations and thanks to Giuseppina Pellizzari and her many contributing colleagues for making this meeting so very special. Photographs of the meeting can be viewed at: http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/Coccoidea/Padua/destination/FrameSet.htm

We are pleased to announce that the X International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies will be held in Adana, Turkey in April 2004. This city is one of the largest in Turkey and is located along the eastern Mediterranean coast. The Tauros Mountains are situated to the north of the city and a typical Mediterranean Coast line is present to the south. Nearby Cukurove is present between the Seyhan and Ceyhan rivers and it contains some of the most fertile areas in Turkey. It is famous for intensive agricultural production including mainly field crops, maize, cotton, fruit crops, and citrus. In ancient times this area called Kilikya and was of special interest because of its rich soils. April is a great time to visit Adana with the sweet aroma of citrus blossoms permeating the air and mild spring weather. There are four or five flights each day from Istanbul which will make travel plans easy since the Adana airport is close to the meeting site. The symposium will discuss all aspects of Coccidiology including: Systematics, Biology, Scale insect pests, Zoogeography, Biological control, Monitoring. A web page is currently being established.

This web site continues to flourish. The address is: http://193.204.185.103/scaleinfo/ scale.htm. The most recent table of contents is as follows:

Do we need to change the rank of the higher taxa of scale insects (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea)? By Penny Gullan

On the term describing the post-embryonic development of Diaspididae (Rhynchota Coccoidea). by Francesco Porcelli

Editor’s Note: If you have news that you would like to have included in the next edition of the Scale, we would be happy to receive it. E-mails are especially appreciated.

Samir A. El-Serwy, Plant Protection Research Institute, Egypt: The following are abstracts of papers that were given in 2001: El- Serwy, S. (2001). Ecology, biology and natural enemies of the red-striped soft scale, Pulvinaria tenuivalvata (Newstead) ( Hemiptera: Coccidae), a pest of sugarcane in Egypt. [ Abstract of presentation at the IX ISSIS, Sep. 2- 8, 2001 in Padua, Italy.]

And El- Serwy, S. (2001). Parasitic complex of Pulvinaria tenuivalvata (Newstead) in Egypt. [Abstract at the ESA Annual Meeting, Dec. 9- 12, 2001 in San Diego, California, USA.]

Penny Gullan, University of California, USA: I've now spent two years living in the USA and working at the University of California in Davis (UCD). 2001 was a busy and fairly productive period. I taught in two new undergraduate courses, one on systematic entomology and the other on biodiversity, and worked on a collaborative project on mealybug bacterial endosymbionts with Drs Paul Baumann and My-Lo Thao of the Microbiology Department at UCD. Paul and My-Lo have sequenced genes from the primary and secondary endosymbionts of a number of mealybug species that I collected/acquired and identified. We recently completed a manuscript on endosymbiont coevolution. A new Ph.D. student, Nam Nguyen, started his studies with me in September 2001. Nam will be working on mealybug phylogenetic systematics using morphological data, but presently is completing lots of coursework. During May, Doug Williams and Dug Miller visited UCD for the last of three visits funded by an NSF Curation grant to the Director of the Bohart Museum of Entomology, Dr. Lynn Kimsey. Doug and Dug continued to assist with sorting of the Ferris-McKenzie scale insect collection, especially identification of slide-mounts and the updating of names of armored scales. At the same time, Ben Normark visited Penny's lab for a week and studied armored scales, did some collecting and presented a seminar on "Phylogeny and alternative genetic systems in scale insects". Ray Gill came to UCD to assist in the coccidological event whenever he could escape administration at the California Department of Food and Agriculture. I had a thoroughly enjoyable time with Doug, Dug, Ben and occasionally Ray in my lab, and Bohart Museum scale insect collection benefited greatly too. Another highlight of the year was spending time in Italy to attend the IXth ISSIS in Padua and then to have a short holiday in NE Italy. Peter Cranston, Nam and I all had a wonderful visit and much appreciated the efficient organization and friendly hospitality of Giuseppina Pellizzari and her colleagues and students. The third highlight of the year was the award of a 5-year National Science Foundation (NSF) grant as part of the PEET Program (Partnerships for Enhancing Expertise in Taxonomy) to conduct research and training in phylogenetic systematics of scale insects. For more information, check out: http://www.nsf.gov/ nsf /nsfpubs/nsf9721.htm. The project is centered at UCD but involves active collaboration with Dug Miller and Ben Normark who will assist me with the training of two graduate students, several undergraduate students and a postdoctoral researcher. The proposed postdoctoral researcher is already a scale insect fanatic: Takumasa Kondo (Demian to his friends) will need little introduction to those who were at the last ISSIS. Currently Demian is completing a Ph.D. on the New World Myzolecaniinae with Mike Williams at Auburn University and hopes to move to Davis later in 2002 to study SE Asian and Australasian Myzolecaniinae. In late December 2001 and early January 2002, I did fieldwork in southern Africa in conjunction with the field studies of Peter Cranston. Scale insect collecting was fairly sparse but I did find a few interesting things, especially some gall-inducing Grewiacoccus mealybugs on a small Grewia tree in Zimbabwe, and other mealybugs on the bizarre desert-living gymnosperm Welwitschia mirabilis. From January 15-18, 2002, I attended the Third International Symposium on "The Biology of Gall-Inducing Arthropods", held at the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa (organized by Schalk Louw, Jan Giliomee and their collegaues). There I presented the only talk on scale insects in collaboration with Jan Giliomee and Chris Hodgson on the South African gall-inducing Calycicoccus merwei (Eriococcidae), and a poster on Apiomorpha with Lyn Cook. During the symposium I was shocked and very saddened to learn of the death of our dear colleague Salvatore Marotta. From Africa I travelled on to Canberra, Australia, where I collaborated with Lyn Cook in my former department of Botany & Zoology at the Australian National University. Lyn and I worked on two manuscripts: one is a book chapter on gall-inducing scale insects (also co-authored with Dug Miller) and the other is a paper on the relationships of gall-inducing eriococcid scales as estimated from molecular data. When my departure day of February 6^th arrived I was reluctant to leave Canberra and return to the end of a Californian winter (although Californian winters can hardly be called winters). Since my return, I've been kept very busy trying to complete my parts of that chapter on gall-inducing coccoids and recently organizing a symposium on the Phylogeny and Evolution of Sternorrhyncha for the next Annual Entomological Society of America (ESA) meeting to be held at Fort Lauderdale in Florida in November this year. See http://www.entsoc.org/annual_meeting/2002 for details of the Annual ESA meeting, although details of the Sternorrhyncha symposium are not yet available. There's one thing about which you can be certain concerning the symposium -- the Sternorrhyncha will be a treated as a suborder of the order Hemiptera!

In January 2002, specimens of a second eastern hemisphere species of the same genus, A. tubercularis Newstead, known as the white mango scale, was discovered on a mango in the Miami area. Surveys have located additional specimens in nearby areas. Thus, it is considered established in Florida. The lac insects, family Kerriidae, are native to the eastern hemisphere, and recently, Paratachardina lobata lobata (Chamberlin) was found in southern Florida. This insect was first detected here in 1999 on a single Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. The plant was destroyed in an attempt to eradicate the insect. However, the scale was again found in March 2000, and is currently reported throughout southeastern Florida. In this region, Bucida buceras, Chrysobalanus icaco, Conocarpus erectus, Ficus spp., Hibiscus, Myrica cerifera, and Quercus geminata are frequent hosts of this insect, but data on its host relations is preliminary. We are currently planning studies of the biology and control of this insect. In November 2001, the Diaspididae, Duplachionaspis divergens (Green) was discovered in widely separated areas of Florida. Future plans for this scale are still under review and evaluation. The known hosts are all in the Poaceae. Reference: Howard, FW., A. Hamon, T. M. McLaughliln, T. Weissling, and Si-Lin Yang. 1999. Aulacaspis yasumatsui (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Diaspididae), a scale insect pest of cycads recently introduced into Florida. Florida Entomologist 82 (1): 14-27

Michael Kosztarab, Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, USA. The following are the highlights of my activities for the past two years. I was fortunate to have had two very busy but fruitful retirement years. In June 2000 we visited Evelyna Danzig in the beautiful Russian city of St. Petersburg. After seeing her workplace in the Zoological Institute Matilda, and I were taken to her lovely home for a tea party. It gave me much pleasure to see my article on the “Status and Future of Human Resources in Coccidology” finally printed in Entomologica (Bari) 33:19-34. During 2001 I also served as coeditor of the 380 page book: A History of the Virginia Academy of Science 1923-2001. I have reviewed a National Science Foundation grant proposal for coccidological research and a number of manuscripts for the ISSIS-IX event in Padua, Italy; and assisted the organizers for a few days, made a presentation and lead discussions at one of the sessions. Last December I attended the Entomological Society of America (ESA) Annual meeting and the Entomological Collections Network sessions in San Diego, California. There were several oral and poster presentations given on research with scale insects. Besides Ray Gill and Mike Williams, two Russian chalcid wasp experts, S.N. Myartseva ad V.A. Triapitsyn also attended the meetings. Apparently there were sufficient papers/posters on scales and other Sternorrhyncha research to qualify for an informal or formal session. Therefore, I was pleased to learn recently that a formal Sternorrhyncha Section A Symposium is planned for the November 2002 ESA national meeting in Fort Lauderdale, Florida by Penny Gullan. It is sad for a professor to learn that some of his former graduate students are reaching retirement, as it was with James O. Howell last year and will be with Avas B. Hamon this year. Last December we were all saddened to learn about the passing away, after a prolonged illness, our colleague and dear friend Salvatore Marotta. On the bright side I have learned that Dug Miller is the recipient of the L. O. Howard Lifetime Achievement Award at the Eastern Branch of ESA in 2002. Congratulations to Dug from our worldwide coccidologist community for receiving this well-earned recognition! It looks good for coccidology, especially since he is the second scale insect specialist in two years to be honored with this award. [editor’s note; Michael received the award for 2001]. Some of you may also recall that in 2000 the ESA President’s Award for a High School teacher successfully using insects in a class project was given for a cochineal scale project to Ms. Michelle Leddell of Santa Monica, California. So, national recognition for coccidological work has been received for three consecutive years. Let’s keep up with this good start!

Ferenc Kozár, Plant Protection Institute, Budapest, Hungary: I am sorry to report that I have not yet had the opportunity to finish the monograph on the Ortheziidae. However, it is near completion and will be in press soon. Because of my obligation to support my research program with grant funds, I have begun working on a project on the mealybug genus Rhizoecus. Based on extensive samples collected in Berlese samples from many parts of the world, I have discovered about 15 new species of the genus. Surprisingly, some of them are quite interesting. I am currently studying the types and unidentified material from several of the major museums. In fact, this note is written in Beltsville, Maryland where I am studying the extensive Rhizoecus material in the collection of the U.S. National Museum of Natural History. I also am enjoying my stay in the Miller Hotel. If you have material of Rhizoecus that you think should be included in this study, please contact me as soon as possible.

Ian Millar, National Collection of Insects, Pretoria, South Africa: I have been collaborating with Chris Hodgson (National Museum of Wales, Cardiff, U.K.) on a study of several interesting new species of South African Aclerdidae. This project has resulted in the description of a new subfamily, two new genera and three new species from southern Africa, and a phylogenetic analysis of the Aclerdidae. The work will be published, with Chris as senior author, in Systematic Entomology (the final manuscript was accepted in January this year for publication). In another project, I have compiled a key to the 50 genera of mealybugs that are known to occur in South Africa. The manuscript was reviewed last year, and is currently awaiting publication in African Entomology, the journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa. Lastly, I am editing a computer database of specimen information associated with the 6700 Coccoidea accessions in our collection. The database will enable searching of the collection's data by category, such as locality or host plant.

R. K. Varshney, Aligarh, India: I would like to draw attention to a relatively new journal that I have started. It is called Bionotes and is a quarterly newsletter that is in its fourth year. It is an outlet for short notes not exceeding four pages.

Douglas J. Williams, The Natural History Museum, Britian: Continues toward his goal of finishing his book on the mealybugs of southern Asia. The illustrations are nearly complete (just a few more Pseudococcus to do) and he is more that 3/4 of the way through the descriptions. He did the usual jaunt to Beltsville, Maryland and Davis, California in the spring of 2001 and is especially grateful to Penny Gullan and Peter Cranston for allowing him to stay in their beautiful house in the foothills during his visit there. He also completed a small paper with Dug Miller on the mealybug genus Antonina. He has numerous other projects either in press or near completion, but it is hard to keep track of all of them because there are so many.

It is particularly sad to announce the death of Salvatore Marotta. The short announcement from Giuseppina says it all. I am very sad to inform you that our dear friend and colleague Salvatore Marotta passed away on December 18, 2001. Those who were privileged to know him were very much aware of his generous nature, his kindness and goodness of heart, and his high level of scientific achievement and productivity. A quick analysis of his coccidology career as compiled by ScaleNet shows that he published 43 papers with the first appearing in 1983. His interests were highly diverse including invasive species, life history, morphology, nomenclature, systematics, and zoogeography to name a few. He was interested in all groups of scale insects but published papers that focused on Coccidae, Dactylopiidae, Diaspididae, Eriococcidae, Kermesidae, Margarodidae, Micrococcidae, Pseudococcidae, and Putoidae. Salvatore was a delightful human being who had a wonderful sense of humor. His enthusiasm and excitement for scale insect research was truly contagious. You couldn’t talk with him for even a few minutes without being struck by his intense interest in scale insects. He will be GREATLY MISSED, even by those of us who live on the other side of the world.

During the previous 12 months I've entered 1757 new records. The total in ScaleNet as of the last upgrade was 16,227. (Last year at this time I had entered 1283 records, and the year before, 790.) We might want to remind people that many of these newly entered titles are older ones that are just being discovered. Anyone who wants to keep track retrospectively of a certain topic or taxa may want to repeat their ScaleNet searches periodically, and not limit their searches to recently published papers.

Abd El-Salam, A. & Mangoud, H. 2001. Development and implementation of integrated pest management to programs of apple trees in reclaimed lands in Egypt: I - The fig scale insect (FSI), Russellaspis (Asterolecanium) pustulans (Cockerell). Journal of Agriculture in the Tropics and Subtropics 102(1):33-44. [AbdElSMa2001]

Notes: The fig scale insect (FSI), Russellaspis (Asterolecanium) pustulans (Cockerell) (Homoptera: Asterolecaniidae) is a serious pest of apple trees, Pyrus malus (Mill), in new reclaimed lands in Egypt. Both nymphs and adult females were found on apple trees all over the year. The distribution studies of the FSI on various parts of apple trees were carried out in a private farm located in El-Mansoria Center at El-Giza Governorate in Egypt. The distribution studies are equally important, particularly when oriented spraying is practiced. The data showed that 51,6 and 46.6% of adults and nymphs stages respectively of the FSI were concentrated on trunks, while, 48.4 and 53.4% respectively were distributed between main branches, new branches and new leaf petioles. The same trend was observed with the distribution of parasites. The FSI population was concentrated in the direction of water pipe in new reclaimed lands. Two methods were carried out to control this pest: the whole tree spraying and the oriented spraying. In the whole tree spraying, the whole tree was sprayed; about 7 liters of pesticide solution at winter time (after pruning) and 15 liters at summer time (before pruning). In the oriented spraying (spraying of infested branches), about 2.5 liter at winter time (after pruning) and 6 liters at summer time (before pruning) spraying solution per tree were sufficient to cover the infested branches. Both spraying methods (oriented and whole tree spraying) gave complete protection for 5 months (in winter) and 4 months (in summer) after which, reinfestation was observed. The whole tree spraying was the more expensive variants (235 and 162 LE/feddan) while the oriented spraying variants (106 and 71 LE/feddan) was relatively safe to the environment and also gave good reduction against the FSI pest and is very important in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) methods.

Abd Rabou, S. 2000. Parasitoids attacking Saccharicoccus sacchari (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) on sugarcane in Egypt. 72-75. In: Allsopp, P.G. (Ed.) & Suasa Ard, W., Sugarcane Pest Management in the New Millennium. 4th Sugarcane Entomology Workshop International Society of Sugar Cane International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, Indooroopilly, Australia. 104 pp. [AbdRab2000]

Notes: Sugarcane mealybug, Saccharicoccus sacchari (Cockerell), exerts drastic effects on sugarcane plants and is considered one of the most important pests attacking this plant in Egypt. The present work includes a survey of the parasitoids of this pest and their abundance in locations affected by it. The survey of S. sacchari parasitoids and hyperparasitoids took place during June 1998-June 1999. Nine parasitoids and hyperparasitoids were recorded. These are Anagyrus greeni Howard, A. pseudococci (Girault), Chartocerus subaenus (Foerster), Leptomastidea abnormis (Girault), Microterys sp., Paraphaenaodiscus sp., Prochiloneurus sp., Rhopus nigriclavus (Girault) and Rhopus sp. Abundance of these species was evaluated at three localities in Egypt. L. abnormis was the dominant parasitoid, showing maximum parasitism rates of 14 and 21% during October 1998 in Assiut and Qena governorates, respectively, while at the third locality it was not active. From these results, it is clear that there is an urgent need for introduction of other effective parasitoids from abroad to achieve effective control of this pest.

Abd-Rabou, S. 2001 (1999). Parasitoids attacking the Mediterranean black scale, Saissetia oleae (Hemiptera: Coccidae) on olive in Egypt. Entomologica 33 (1999): 169-172. [AbdRab2001]

Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS VIII International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at Wye College (U.K.), Aug. 31st - Sept. 6th, 1998.] Saissetia oleae is an important pest of olive trees in Egypt. A survey of the parasitoids of S. oleae was carried out monthly between April 1995 and March 1997 in three different locations in Egypt. Five species of Encyrtidae, a species of Pteromalidae and an aphelinid hyperparasite were found. Three of these records were new for Egypt.

Abd-Rabou, S. 2001a (1999). An annotated list of the Hymenopterous parasitoids of the Diaspididae (Hemiptera: coccoidea) in Egypt, with new records. Entomologica 33: 173-177. [AbdRab2001a]

Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS VIII International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at Wye College (U.K.), Aug. 31st - Sept. 6th, 1998.] Eighteen species of hymenopterous parasitoid of armoured scale insects (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) were recorded in a survey of host plants in three locations in Egypt during 1994-1997. The 16 species of Aphelinidae and two Encyrtidae are listed, along with their diaspidid hosts and location in Egypt; ten species were new records for Egypt.

Abd-Rabou, S., Hanafi, A. & Hussein, N. 2001 (1999). Notes on the parasitoids of the soft brown scale, Coccus hesperidum (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in Egypt. Entomologica 33(1999): 179-184. [AbdRabHaHu2001]

Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS VIII International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at Wye College (U.K.), Aug. 31st - Sept. 6th, 1998.] Thirteen species of hymenopterous parasitoids were found in association with Coccus hesperidum at three locations in Egypt: 4 species of Aphelinidae (of which three were recorded for the first time); seven species of Encyrtidae (of which three were recorded for the first time), the first record of a species of Mymaridae, plus a species of Pteromalidae. The relative abundance of these parasitoids is discussed.

Abdel-Salam, A.H. & Abdel-Baky, N.F. 2001. Life table and biological studies of Harmonia axyridis Pallas (Col., Coccinellidae) reared on the grain moth eggs of Sitotroga cerealella Olivier (Lep., Gelechiidae). Journal of Applied Entomology 125(8): 455-462. [AbdelSAb2001]

Notes: The developmental period of immature stages, survival per cent, longevity, fecundity and life table parameters of Harmonia axyridis by feeding on fresh and frozen grain moth eggs (GME) of Sitotroga cerealella were studied under laboratory conditions. The effect of crowding adults on fecundity of females was also determined. The total developmental time from egg hatching to adult eclosion ranged from 18.89 +/- 0.32 to 22.5 +/- 0.21 days on fresh and frozen GME, respectively. Survival per cent from egg hatching 0o adult emergence differed significantly when the predator fed on the two diets of GME. Also, pupal and adult weights were affected by feeding on fresh and frozen GME. There were no significant differences in longevity of females, while there were significant variations in fecundity of females and longevity of males. The calculated values of T, DT, R-o, r(m), and e(rm) were high by feeding on fresh GME. Moreover, rates of survivorship (Lx), and maximum oviposition per female per day (Mx) were higher when the predator was reared on fresh than on frozen GME. Crowding conditions of predator adults affected the fecundity of females due to egg cannibalism by both males and females of the predator. [Keyword: Margarodidae]

Abdrashitova, N. 2001 (1999). Dendrophilous Coccoids (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) of the walnut-fruit forest area of Kyrgyzstan. Entomologica 33 (1999): 229. [Abdras2001]

Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS VIII International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at Wye College (U.K.), Aug. 31st - Sept. 6th, 1998.] Abstract only. A study of dendrophilous coccoid fauna of the walnut-fruit forest area of southern Kyrgyzstan (the Fergana and Chatkal mountain ranges) was undertaken. Forty-five coccoid species were discovered belonging to 27 genera and 6 families: Diaspididae (9 genera, 18 species), Coccidae (9 genera, 15 species), Pseudococcidae (6 genera, 9 species) and Margarodidae, Eriococcidae and Ortheziidae (1 species each). The scale insect fauna contains 9 species that are basically from Central Asia (20%) and 14 species which are subendemic to the Iranian and Turanian regions (31%). The rest of the species are Mediterranean (7 spp., 16%), European (2 spp., 5%), Palaearctic (4 spp., 9%) and Holarctic (3 spp., 7%). The complex of accidental species includes 6 species (13.5%). These scale species could be referred to three groups: polyphagous - 24 species (53.3%), oligophagous - 18 species (40%) and monophagous - 3 species (6.7%). In addition, on the basis of their frequency and damage, 10 species were categorised as numerous, 21 species as moderately numerous and 14 species as rare or infrequent. The most numerous and economically important species was Sphaerolecanium prunastri (Fonsc.), which caused extensive damage to the local alycha species (Prunus sogdiana Vass.). In these areas of Kyrgyzstan, biological control of the scale insect fauna is considered the most appropriate and promising method and such encyrtid parasitoids as Discodes coccophagus Ratz. and Microterys hortulanus Erd. play an important role in the control of S. prunastri.

Abdul, N.H. 2000. [Saissetia oleae (Bernard), occasional scale of Lebanon cedar (Hemiptera, Coccoidea, Lecanidae).] Saissetia oleae (Bernard), cochenille occasionnelle du Cedre au Liban (Hemiptera, Coccoidea, Lecanidae). (In French). Nouvelle Revue d'Entomologie 17(1): 81-82. [Abdul2000]

Notes: Individuals of Saissetia oleae were found on Lebanon cedar (Cedrus libani) in the region of Jbeil, Byblos, at 500 m altitude.

Abou-Elkhair, S. 2001 (1999). Scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) and their parasitoids on ornamental plants in Alexandria, Egypt. Entomologica 33 (1999): 185-195. [AbouEl2001]

Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS VIII International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at Wye College (U.K.), Aug. 31st - Sept. 6th, 1998.] This paper discusses the scale insects (Coccoidea) and their parasitoids on ornamental plants in the Alexandria district of Egypt, between 1995 and 1998. Thirty-nine coccoid species belonging to eight families were noted: Asterolecaniidae, Coccidae, Diaspididae, Eriococcidae, Margarodidae, Ortheziidae, Phoenicococcidae and Pseudococcidae. Twelve genera of Hymenoptera belonging to five families were recorded as parasitoids: Aphelinidae (Aphytis, Coccophagus and Encarsia); Encyrtidae (Anagyrus, Arrhenophagus, Gyranusoidea, Habrolepis, Metaphycus and Rhopus); Eulophidae (Aprostocetus); Pteromalidae (Scutellista) and Signiphoridae (Signiphora). Four endoparasitoids were recorded from Egypt for the first time: Arrhenophagus sp. and Gyranusoidea litura Prinsloo (Encyrtidae), Aprostocetus sp. (Eulophidae) and Signiphora fax Girault (Signiphoridae).

Addison, P. & Samways, M.J. 2000. A survey of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) that forage in vineyards in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. African Entomology 8(2): 251-260. [AddisoSa2000]

Notes: This study was undertaken to establish which species of ants were associated with the mealybug Planococcus ficus (Signoret) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), and which species were dominant in the main vine-growing areas of the Western Cape Province, South Africa. During 1998/99, 22 vineyards were surveyed in the Stellenbosch/Paarl, Little Karoo, Worcester, Swartland, Olifants River and Hex River Valley regions, using pitfall traps to sample epigaeic ants and tuna-bait traps to sample arboreal ants. Each vineyard was sampled intensively for two consecutive weeks shortly before harvest. Forty two species of ants were recorded during the survey. The most widely distributed ant species, which were potentially dominant and associated with mealybug outbreaks in vineyards in the Western Cape Province, were Anoplolepis custodiens (F. Smith), A. steingroeveri (Forel) and Linepithema humile (Mayrn). Crematogaster peringueyi Emery, Crematogaster sp. 2 and C. melanogaster Emery are three arboreal species potentially dominant in vines only. Dominance indices for Pheidole sp. 1 and Pheidole sp. 2 were low compared to the more aggressive Anoplolepis spp. and L. humile, indicating that the former two species were not of economic significance. Edge effects occurred in five of the surveyed vineyards for three ant species. These edge effects indicate specific preferences of the ants for certain abiotic and microclimatic factors in vineyards, but could also be the result of interspecific competition.

Alencar, J.A. de 2000. [Potential pests present in the irrigated dwarf cocoa agroecosystem in the Sao Francisco valley.] Pragas potenciais presentes no agroecossistema do coqueiro anao irrigado no submedio do vale do Sao Francisco. (In Portuguese). Documentos da Embrapa Semi Arido No. 152: 12 pp. [Alenca2000]

Notes: Notes are given on potential arthropod pests of dwarf cocoa in Petrolina, Brazil. The pests considered are: Aspidiotus destructor, Hyalospila ptychis, Tetranychidae and Eriophyidae.

Allsopp, P.G. & Hogarth, D.M. 2001. I think pink ground pearls might be feeding on my crop -- what can I do? Proceedings of the 2001 Conference of the Australian Society of Sugar Cane Technologists 199-203. [AllsopHo2001]

Notes: [Conference held at held at Mackay, Queensland, Au 2001.] The morphology (at different developmental stages), development, and reproduction of pink ground pearl (Eumargarodes laingi) are reviewed. Use of the proper insecticide or cultural control mechanisms (varying length of crop cycle, fallowing, cultivation and alternative crops), resistant sugarcane cultivars; and observation of proper farm hygiene to reduce/eradicate this pest are presented. Combinations of the aforementioned practices for integrated pest management, and different strategies for various soil types are described.

Allsopp, P.G. (Ed.) & Suasa Ard, W. 2000. In: , Sugarcane Pest Management in the New Millennium. 4th Sugarcane Entomology Workshop International Society of Sugar Cane. International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, Indooroopilly, Australia. 104 pp. [AllsopSu2000]

Notes: Thirteen papers were presented at this Workshop, under the headings: biological control of sugarcane borers; chemical and host-plant resistance for control of borers; integrated control of borers; biotechnology; biological control of sucking insects; control of whitegrubs; economic injury levels; and pest faunas and incursion management. Scale species discussed include Aulacaspis tegalensis, Ceroplastes destructor, Planococcus citri, Pseudococcus maritimus and Saccharicoccus sacchari.

Allsopp, P.G., FitzGibbon, F. & DeBarro, P.J. 2000. Development of a Pest Risk Analysis and a Pest Incursion Management Plan for the Australian Sugar Industry. 96-103 In: Allsopp, P.G. (Ed.) & Suasa Ard, W., Sugarcane Pest Management in the New Millennium. 4th Sugarcane Entomology Workshop International Society of Sugar Cane International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, Indooroopilly, Australia. 104 pp. [AllsopFiDe2000]

Notes: A Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) undertaken for the Australian sugar industry identified 1286 species of insects and mites associated with sugarcane throughout the world. In areas to the north of Australia (Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Philippines) more than 400 potential pest species were identified, including two scale insects. We also developed a Pest Incursion Management Plan (PIMP) that complements the PRA database, and covers both incursions into commercial cropping areas and into back-yard plots of sugarcane.

Alvarez, R.C. 2001. Program for rubber. Greenfields (Philippines) p. 23-27. [Alvare2001]

Notes: The occurrence of Pseudococcidae and pest control is among the topics discussed here.

Amin, A.H., Risk Madiha, A. & Sakr, H.E.A. 2001 (1999). Factors responsible for the extinction of Chrysomphalus aonidum (L.) from citrus orchards in Egypt. Entomologica 33(1999): 441. [AminRiSa2001]

Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS VIII International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at Wye College (U.K.), Aug. 31st - Sept. 6th, 1998.] Abstract only. Ecological studies have shown that the black armoured scale, Chrysomphalus aonidum (L.), has four overlapping annual generations on navel orange trees under conditions in Qalyubyia Governorate, Egypt. Five species of natural enemies were recorded on C. aonidum during the present work. The ectoparasitoid, Aphytis holoxanthus DeBach, was recorded for the first time from Egypt, and the other bioagents were three endoparasitoids: Aspidiotiphagus citrinus Craw., A. lounsburyi Berl. & Paoli and Habrolepis pascuorum Mercet and an entomogenous fungus, Cladosporium cladosporides (Fresen). Recently, C. aonidum appears to have become extinct in citrus orchards in many localities in Egypt. It is considered that this is due to a combination of spray timing and the effects of these five bioagents. Since 1967, the Ministry of Agriculture in Egypt has recommended the use of summer sprays against this pest, instead of autumn and winter applications. Summer sprays are less harmful to these natural enemies, which are mainly effective against the winter and spring populations of C. aonidum.

Arai, T. 2001. Effects of simulated rainfall on the survival of Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Bulletin of the National Institute of Fruit Tree Science (35): 109-114. [Arai2001]

Notes: Potted citrus trees infested with Pseudococcus cryptus were exposed to simulated rainfall to clarify its effect on the survival of this pest species. The rainfall did not affect the survival rates of the insects. The addition of wind at a rate of 2m/s to the rainfall enhanced the mortality of the first instar nymphs. The intensity and duration of rainfall with wind affected the survival of the first instar nymphs. However, the survival of the second instar nymphs did not change by those treatments.

Aung, L.H., Leesch, J.G., Jenner, J.F. & Grafton Cardwell, E.E. 2001. Effects of carbonyl sulfide, methyl iodide, and sulfuryl fluoride on fruit phytotoxicity and insect mortality. Annals of Applied Biology 139(1): 93-100. [AungLeJe2001]

Notes: Three potential chemical fumigants, carbonyl sulfide (COS), methyl iodide (MI) and sulfuryl fluoride (SF), were tested at selected dosages on lemons (cv. Eureka) against California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii), and MI and COS were tested on nectarines (cv. Summer Bright) against codling moth (Cydia pomonella). SF at _ 40 mg litre-1 gave 100% red scale mortality but resulted in commodity phytotoxicity. Lemons treated with the highest selected dose of 80 mg litre-1 COS gave only 87% kill of red scale, but failed to reach the desired probit 9 level.

Aytas, M., Yumruktepe, R. & Mart, C. 2001. [Using pheromone traps to control California Red Scale Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) (Hom.: Diaspididae) in the Eastern Mediterranean region.] (In Turkish; Summary In English). Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 25(2): 97-110. [AytasYuMa2001]

Notes: [Original title: Dogu akdeniz bolgesi'nde turuncgillerde zararli Kirmizi kabuklubit, Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) (Hom.: Diaspididae) mucadelesinin yonlendirilmesinde eseysel tuzaklardan yararlanma olanaklari.] In this study, the possibility of using pheromone traps against California red scale (CRS), Aonidiella aurantii, the main pest of citrus fruits, was examined. In 1995 and 1996, the male flight periods and four peak points were determined. There was a significant correlation between numbers of trapped males and leaf/fruit CRS populations. Mass trapping was not found to be a promising method for CRS control based on effectiveness and costs.

Bajwa, G.A. & Gul, H. 2000. Some observations on insect species of Paulownia species at Pakistan Forest Institute Campus, Peshawar. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 50(1-2): 71-80. [BajwaGu2000]

Notes: Exotic Paulownia, fast growing tree species of Chinese origin, were introduced in different ecological zones of Pakistan. Studies conducted by recording the observations fortnightly on nurseries and plantations at the Pakistan Forest Institute Campus, Peshawar, showed that the Paulownia spp. (P. elongata, P. fargesii, P. fortunei, P. kawakamii, P. tomentosa) were attacked by fourteen insect species, including Drosicha stebbingii (Margarodidae). D. stebbingii appeared in epidemic form on Paulownia tomentosa and P. fortunei. The pest was managed by adopting an integrated control strategy in which practices such as destruction of eggs by soil working, banding of tree trunks and application of insecticides were combined together. All components of the integrated control strategy proved effective. Among the chemicals Buldock 25EC [beta-cyfluthrin], Mepra 50EC and Endon 35EC at 0.2% were the most effective insecticides against the pest.

Balikai, R.A. & Bagali, A.N. 2000. Population density of mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) on ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamarck) and economic losses. Agricultural Science Digest 20(1): 62-63. [BalikaBa2000]

Notes: Studies were carried out in Bijapur, India, in 1998 to assess the population density of M. hirsutus on ber and economic losses sustained. On an average there were 80.6 colonies per plant, each colony having 17.8 individuals. Similarly 15.4 egg masses covered with white waxy mealy matter were observed per plant, each egg mass containing 90.7 orange coloured oval shaped eggs. Based on the market price of infested and healthy fruits, there was a net monetary loss of Rs. 25,800/ha accounting for 33.33 per cent loss due to mealybug infestation.

Barbagallo, S. 2000. Ricordo di Vincenzo Lupo (1908-1999). (In Italian). Atti dell'Accademia Nazionale Italiana di Entomologia 48: 67-80. [Barbag2000]

Barzman, M.S. & Daane, K.M. 2001. Host-handling behaviours in parasitoids of the black scale: a case for ant-mediated evolution. Journal of Animal Ecology 70(2): 237-247. [BarzmaDa2001]

Notes: 1. We hypothesize that differences in host-handling times among three closely related encyrtid parasitoids (Metaphycus anneckei Guerrieri & Noyes, Metaphycus hageni Daane & Caltagirone and Metaphycus lounsburyi [Howard]) are influenced by the defenses of their host, black scale (Saissetia oleae [Olivier]). Two forms of host defense were examined: (i) the scale's possession of a hard integument, and (ii) the effect of ants tending S. oleae. 2. Duration of host assessment, host rejection, drilling/oviposition and the presence or absence of host feeding were measured for M. anneckei, M. hageni and M. lounsburyi. Results show that M. anneckei oviposits through the soft ventral integument while M. hageni and M. lounsburyi oviposit through the harder dorsal integument. M. anneckei was never observed to host feed while both M. hageni and M. lounsburyi use hosts for either oviposition or host feeding. The ventral drilling location and absence of non-concurrent host feeding significantly reduced the overall host-handling time of M. anneckei, relative to M. lounsburyi and M. hageni. 3. Oviposition success of M. anneckei and M. hageni in the presence of ants was compared. An observation arena was established with the numbers of Argentine ants, Linepithema humile (Mayr) and S. oleae manipulated on potted oleanders. M. hageni and M. anneckei were placed, individually, onto the observation arena and their interaction with ants and S. oleae recorded. While 55 times 3% of M. anneckei successfully oviposited, M. hageni was unable to oviposit or host feed in the presence of foraging ants. 4. Field tests were conducted using potted oleander plants, infested with S. oleae, to determine the effect of L. humile on scale density, parasitism levels and parasitoid species composition. Ant-tended plants had significantly more scale, lower scale parasitism and lower levels of host feeding (as indicated by unknown scale mortality levels). There were also significant differences in parasitoid species composition between ant-tended and ant-excluded treatments, with the relative frequency of parasitoid species with faster host-handling times more common in the ant-tended treatment.

Beardsley, J.W. 2001 (1999). Nipaecoccus nipae (Maskell) and two apparently undescribed sibling species (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae). Entomologica 33 (1999): 49-57. [Beards2001]

Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS VIII International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at Wye College (U.K.), Aug. 31st - Sept. 6th, 1998.] This paper argues that there are at least two species belonging to the Nipaecoccus nipae-species complex in Hawaii, one with white wax and the other with buff wax. These two species differ in a number of features but perhaps the most important is that the encyrtid parasitoid Pseudaphycus utilis Timberlake is only known to parasitize the white-wax species. A brief history of the two species (and another in Florida) is outlined, followed by a discussion of the morphological reasons for believing them separate. The problems of nomenclature are then outlined and it is concluded that the buff-wax species is Nipaecoccus nipae (Maskell) and that N. pseudonipae (Cockerell) is a synonym. The two other species (i.e. the white-wax species from Hawaii and the species from Florida) are then described as Nipaecoccus paranipaen, n. sp. and Nipaecoccus floridensis, n.sp. respectively.

Beggs, J. 2001. The ecological consequences of social wasps (Vespula spp.) invading an ecosystem that has an abundant carbohydrate resource. Biological Conservation 99(1): 17-28. [Beggs2001]

Notes: Introduced Vespula wasps have successfully invaded beech (Nothofagus) forests in New Zealand. By collecting honeydew, an abundant carbohydrate resource, wasps can reach high numbers. Honeydew is produced by an endemic scale insect that infests about 1 million hectares of land, 15% of New Zealand's remaining native forest. At the peak of the wasp season, honeydew beech forests had an average biomass of about 3.8 kg of introduced wasps ha-1 (10,000 workers ha-1). These abundant invaders reduce the standing crop of honeydew by more than 90% for 5 months of the year and so compete with native species (such as birds and invertebrates) that also consume honeydew. The behaviour of 3 species of native birds is affected by this reduction in honeydew. However, it is unknown whether this affects the survival or reproductive success of these birds. Nevertheless, to avoid altering the birds' behaviour, wasp density should not increase above a level where wasps revisit honeydew threads more than once every 180-400 min. Additionally, the predation rate of wasps on some invertebrate prey species is so high that the probability of an individual surviving through the wasp season is virtually nil. Hence, wasps probably reduce or eradicate populations of some invertebrates. Wasp abundance needs to be reduced by 80-90% to conserve some native invertebrate species. Wasps could also affect nutrient cycling in the honeydew beech forest community by reducing the flow of carbon to microorganisms in the phyllosphere and the soil, which ultimately could affect soil solution chemistry. Current control tools are unable to reduce wasp populations over large tracts of forest. The challenge is to identify and develop new control techniques to achieve widespread control for conservation gains. The impact of introduced social wasps provides a warning of the damage exotic ants could cause if they were to invade honeydew beech forest. New Zealand needs to be vigilant to reduce the risk of an invasion by ants or other social wasps.

Bekele, T. 2001. Insecticidal screening against enset root mealybug, Paraputo spp. AgriTopia 16(2): 2-3. [Bekele2001]

Notes: Enset [Ensete sp.] plants infested with root mealybug (Paraputo sp.) were treated with different insecticides between the 1997 and 1999 seasons, in Ethiopia. Out of the chemical insecticides tested, Phostoxin tablets and Phyrinex 48% EC resulted in mean pseudostem circumference increases of 23.23 and 32.34 cm, and in mean plant height increases of 71.09 and 58.11 cm, respectively, over the control. Phyrinex 48% EC and Phostoxin tablet provided better control of root mealybug than the other insecticides. Miraculus chalk could not be recommended for enset root mealy bug control because of its phytotoxic effect.

Ben-Dov, Y. 2001. [A note on quarantine interceptions of the San Jose scale.] (In Hebrew; Summary In English). Alon Hanotea 55: 141-142. [BenDov2001]

Notes: The San Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Comstock) (Coccoidea: Diaspididae) has been frequently intercepted during 1998-2000 in Israel on commercial importation of apple, pear and quince from Austria, France, Greece, Italy, Turkey and USA (Washington State). The scale does not occur in Israel.

Ben-Dov, Y. 2001a. A new species of Puto from oaks in the eastern Mediterranean (Hemiptera, Coccoidea, Pseudococcidae). (In English; Summary In French). Revue Française d'Entomologie 23(1): 105-108. [BenDov2001a]

Notes: The female of Puto israelensis, new species, is described and illustrated.

Ben-Dov, Y. 2001b. [Pulvinaria psidii Maskell a new soft scale in Israel.] (In Hebrew; Summary In English). Alon Hanotea 55: 262-263. [BenDov2001b]

Notes: The guava scale, Pulvinaria psidii, (Hemiptera: Coccidae: Coccoidea) was found in 1999 for the first time in Israel. Host plants are listed.

Ben-Dov, Y. 2001c. Taxonomy of Aspidiotus aharonii Bodenheimer, 1924 (Hem. Coccoidea, Diaspididae) with new synonymy. Entomologist's Monthly Magazine 137: 161. [BenDov2001c]

Notes: Aspidiotus aharoni Bodenheimer, 1924, originally described from Ceratonia siliqua near Benjamina, Israel, is designated as a junior synonym of Diaspidiotus pyri Lichtenstein, 1881.

Ben-Dov, Y. 2001d. A new genus and species of soft scales (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae) from oaks in Israel. Phytoparasitica 29(5): 400-404. [BenDov2001d]

Notes: A new genus of soft scale, Kenima, is described for Kemina galilit, a new species recorded on oaks in Israel.

Ben-Dov, Y. & Marotta, S. 2001. Taxonomy and family placement of Coccus bassi Targioni Tozzetti, 1867 (Hemiptera: Coccoidea). Phytoparasitica 29(2): 169-170. [BenDovMa2001S]

Notes: Coccus bassi Targioni Tozzetti, 1867 is assigned to the Dactylopius in the family Dactylopiidae. Notes are given on its taxonomic features. This species is compared morphologically to Coccus cacti (now Dactylopius coccus).

Ben-Dov, Y. & Marotta, S. 2001a. Stabilizing the name Aspidiotus nerii Bouché, 1833 (Hem., Coccoidea, Diaspididae). Bulletin de la Société Entomologique de France 106(2): 181-191. [BenDovMa2001Sa]

Notes: Aspidiotus nerii is placed as the valid synonym for the oleander scale. Diaspis obliquum is established as a nomen oblitum and a synonym of A. nerii.

Ben-Dov, Y. & Matile-Ferrero, D. 2001. On the distribution of Phenacoccus yerushalmi Ben-Dov (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) in the Mediterranean Basin. Phytoparasitica 29(2): 167. [BenDovMa2001D]

Notes: This species was first described from Jerusalem, Israel, recorded on Pinus halepensis. The mealybug is widely distributed in the Mediterranean basin, but has only been found sporadically.

Ben-Dov, Y., Matile-Ferrero, D. & Gafny, R. 2000. Taxonomy of Ceroplastes rubens Maskell with description of a related new species (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae) from Reunion, including DNA polymorphism analysis. (In English; Summary In French). Annales de la Société Entomologique de France 36(4): 423-433. [BenDovMaGa2000]

Notes: A new species, Ceroplastes reunionensis, is described from Réunion, where it was found heavily infesting Mangifera indica, Persea americana and several ornamental plants. The closely related species, C. rubens Maskell, is redescribed from topotypic material collected in Queensland, Australia. These two species differ from each other in the wax test color, body color, morphological, biological and molecular characters (RAPD). Inter- and intraspecific variation of several morphological characters of both species is discussed. Ceroplastes vinsonii Signoret, 1872, is regarded as a nomen oblitum, and, therefore, becomes a new synonym of Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock, 1881.

Ben-Yehuda, S., Hadar, D., Wysoky, M., Izhar, Y. & Swirski, E. 2001 (1999). The importance of oils in the integrated management of the pyriform sale in avocado orchards in Israel. Entomophaga 33 (1999): 273. [BenYehHaWy2001]

Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS VIII International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at Wye College (U.K.), Aug. 31st - Sept. 6th, 1998.] Abstract only. The pyriform scale, Protopulvinaria pyriformis (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae) was discovered in Israel in 1980 and within a few years had spread to most of the avocado growing regions of the country. Several major avocado varieties (mainly Nabal) are highly susceptible to the pyriform scale. Other less susceptible avocado varieties, in the vicinity of the infected sites, can become damaged as well. The damage is caused by the secretion of large amounts of honeydew, resulting in a thick cover of sooty-mould on the leaves and on the fruit. Despite the large numbers of local natural enemies which accumulate in infested areas, as well as the establishment of the introduced encyrtid Metaphycus stanleyi Compere, which between them often cause high mortality of the scale, injury to susceptible avocado varieties has not been prevented. As a routine, application of synthetic insecticides in avocado orchards in Israel is avoided. Hence, to lower the pyriform scale populations with minimum negative consequences to the natural enemies, we studied the effect of several oils and a soap application on the pyriform scale and the activity of the natural enemies. Several mineral oils ("mayonnaise-type" 1.75% (80% A.I.) and "stylet-oil" 1% (80% A.I.)) effectively controlled the scale nymphal stages. Therefore, oil application is conducted in the spring (February-April) and in the second half of the summer (July-October), when the population consists of mainly immature stages. Cotton oil and soap (potassium salt of fatty acids) were less effective. Application of the above mentioned compounds did not interfere with the activity of the natural enemies of the scale.

Bene, G. del, Gargani, E. & Landi, S. 2000. Evaluation of plant extracts for insect control. Journal of Agriculture and Environment for International Development 94(1): 43-61. [BeneGaLa2000]

Notes: This paper reports the results of trials on the insecticidal effect of the vegetal extracts Quassia, Ryania, Derris, Urtica, Artemisia and neem (Azadirachta indica). The insects targeted included Ceroplastes rusci and Aonidia lauri. Also studied were the side effects of the various products on the common parasitoid Encarsia formosa.

Bentley, W., Rice, R.E., Brazzle, J. & Day, K. 2000. Pests of nectarine. UC Pest Management Guidelines [BentleRiBr2000]

Notes: [http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/selectnewpest.nectarine.html] This update to the University of California IPM Pest Management Guidelines contains descriptions and control recommendations for insects, arthropod and nematode diseases of nectarine in the U.S., including Quadraspidiotus perniciosus.

Bentley, W.J., Coates, W.W., Hasey, J., Hendricks, C.L., Olson, W.H., Pickel, C., Sibbett, G.S. & Van Steenwyk, R.A. 2000. Pests of walnut. UC Pest Management Guidelines [BentleCoHa2000]

Notes: [http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/selectnewpest.walnuts.html] This update to the University of California IPM Pest Management Guidelines contains descriptions and control recommendations for insects, arthropod and nematode diseases of walnut in the U.S., including Parthenolecanium corni, P. pruinosum, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus and Q. juglansregiae.

Bentley, W.J., Hendricks, L., Duncan, R., Silvers, C., Martin, L., Gibbs, M. & Stevenson, M. 2001. BIOS and conventional almond orchard management compared. California Agriculture 55(5): 12-19. [BentleHeDu2001]

Notes: One of the objectives of this study was to evaluate the abundance of San José scale and its associated parasitoids in Biologically Integrated Orchard Systems (BIOS) and conventional almond orchards.

Bentley, W.J., Rice, R.E. & Day, K.R. 2000 (1998). Pests of plum. UC Pest Management Guidelines [BentleRiDa2000]

Notes: [http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/selectnewpest.plum.html] This update to the University of California IPM Pest Management Guidelines contains descriptions and control recommendations for insects, arthropod and nematode diseases of plum in the U.S., including Parthenolecanium corni, Epidiaspis leperii and Quadraspidiotus perniciosus.

Bentley, W.J., Rice, R.E., Beede, R.H. & Daane, K. 2000. Pests of pistachio. UC Pest Management Guidelines. [BentleRiBe2000]

Notes: [http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/selectnewpest.pistachios.html] This update to the University of California IPM Pest Management Guidelines contains descriptions and control recommendations for insects, arthropod and nematode diseases of pistachio in the U.S., including Coccus hesperidum, Saissetia oleae, Parthenolecanium corni and P. pruinosum.

Bentley, W.J., Zalom, F., Granett, J., Smith, R.J., Varela, L. & Purcell, A. 2000. Pest of grape. UC Pest Management Guidelines [BentleZaGr2000]

Notes: [http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/selectnewpest.grapes.html] This update to the University of California IPM Pest Management Guidelines contains descriptions and control recommendations for insects, arthropod and nematode diseases of grape in the U.S., including Pseudococcus maritimus, P. viburni and P. longispinus.

Bergelson, J., Dwyer, G. & Emerson, J.J. 2001. Models and data on plant-enemy coevolution. Annual Review of Genetics 35: 469-499. [BergelDwEm2001]

Notes: Although coevolution is complicated, in that the interacting species evolve in response to each other, such evolutionary dynamics are amenable to mathematical modeling. In this article, we briefly review models and data on coevolution between plants and the pathogens and herbivores that attack them. We focus on "arms races," in which trait values in the plant and its enemies escalate to more and more extreme values. Untested key assumptions in many of the models are the relationships between costs and benefits of resistance in the plant and the level of resistance, as well as how costs of virulence or detoxification ability in the enemy change with levels of these traits. A preliminary assessment of these assumptions finds only mixed support for the models. What is needed are models that are more closely tailored to particular plant-enemy interactions, as well as experiments that are expressly designed to test existing models. Black pineleaf scale, beech scale, armored scale insect and pinyon needle scale are mentioned as examples of empirical studies of local adaptation.

Bernal, J.S., Luck, R.F., Morse, J.G. & Drury, M.S. 2001. Seasonal and scale size relationships between citricola scale (Homoptera: Coccidae) and its parasitoid complex (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) on San Joaquin Valley citrus. Biological Control 20(3): 210-221. [BernalLuMo2001]

Notes: The phenology of citricola scale, Coccus pseudomagnoliarum (Kuwana), and its associated parasitoid complex were studied on citrus in the San Joaquin Valley of central California over the period April 1995-March 1997. A total of 10,237 parasitoid specimens of 10 species were collected. Two of these species, Marietta mexicana (Howard) and Encyrtus lecaniorum (Mayr), each recovered from individually isolated scales, represent new parasitoid records for citricola scale. A third species, Encarsia citrinus citrinus (Craw), may represent a new parasitoid record, but this requires further confirmation because a single (male) specimen was recovered from individually isolated scales. The three most dominant parasitoid species, Coccophagus lycimnia (Walker), Metaphycus helvolus (Compere), and Metaphycus Luteolus (Timberlake), accounted for the majority (>97%) of the specimens recovered. In contrast to the situation on citrus in southern California, where citricola scale is under effective biological control and is very rarely seen, citricola scale on citrus in the San Joaquin Valley is reemerging as a major pest, especially in groves employing integrated pest management with minimal use of broad-spectrum insecticides. Possible reasons uncovered in this study for the lack of effective biological control of citricola scale in the San Joaquin Valley include: (i) reduced presence of Metaphycus spp. because of hyperparasitism by the heteronymous hyperparasitoid C. lycimnia; (ii) absence of alternate hosts for those species of Metaphycus present; and (iii) absence of hosts of suitable size for Metaphycus at critical times of the year. Recommendations for improving the level of biological control in the San Joaquin Valley are discussed.

Bertschy, C., Turlings, T.C.J., Bellotti, A.C. & Dorn, S. 2001. The role of mealybug-induced cassava plant volatiles in the attraction of the encyrtid parasitoids Aenasius vexans and Apoanagyrus diversicornis. Journal of Insect Behavior 14(3): 363-371. [BertscTuBe2001]

Bilog Obra, G.P. & Morallo Rejesus, B. 2000. Biological studies of Aphytis sp. nr. chrysomphali (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). Philippine Entomologist 14(2): 137-147. [BilogOMo2000]

Notes: The parasitoid Aphytis sp. nr. chrysomphali was collected from coconut scale, California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) and Florida red scale (Chrysomphalus ficus) attacking citrus in August 1989 from Villaverde, Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines. The biology of the parasitoid on coconut scale, Aspidiotus destructor Signoret, reared on squash was studied. The total developmental period of the uniparental (thelytokous) parasitoid from egg deposition to adult emergence ranges from 13-15 days with a mean of 14.18+0.90.

Biswas, J. & Ghosh, A.B. 2000. Biology of the mealybug, Planococcus minor (Maskell) on various host plants. Environment & Ecology 18(4): 929-932. [BiswasGh2000]

Notes: The biology of the mealybug, Planococcus minor (Maskell) was studied in the laboratory on different host plants. The average duration of male and female nymphs respectively were 21.42 and 16.17 days on Ixora signaporensis, 16.73 and 17.49 days on Glycine max and 21.30 and 21.80 days on Acalypha wilkesiana. The preoviposition and oviposition periods and fecundity were 8.25 and 9.25 days and 65.75 eggs on I. signaporensis, 6.25 and 8.25 days and 132.50 eggs on G. max and 7.25 and 9.25 days and 138.75 eggs on A. wilkesiana.

Blachinski, D. & Dreeshpon, Y. 2000. [Spring control of the citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri).] (In Hebrew). Alon Hanotea 54(8): 316-318. [BlachiDr2000]

Blumberg, D. & Van Driesche, R.G. 2001. Encapsulation rates of three encyrtid parasitoids by three mealybug species (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) found commonly as pests in commercial greenhouses. Biological Control 22: 191-199. [BlumbeVa2001]

Notes: Encapsulation rates of the parasitoids Leptomastix dactylopii Howard, Leptomastix epona (Walker), and Anagyrus fusciventris (Girault) (Homoptera: Encyrtidae) by the mealybugs Planococcus citri Risso, Pseudococcus viburni (Signoret), and Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni-Tozzetti) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) were studied under controlled laboratory conditions.

Blumberg, D., Ben-Dov, Y. & Mendel, Z. 2001 (1999). The citriculus mealybug, Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel, and its natural enemies in Israel: History and present situation. Entomologica 33 (1999): 233-242. [BlumbeBeMe2001]

Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS VIII International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at Wye College (U.K.), Aug. 31st - Sept. 6th, 1998.] The citriculus mealybug, Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel, was first discovered in Israel in 1937 and very rapidly became a key pest of citrus. However, since the early 1940s, the mealybug population has sharply decreased. This occurred in parallel with the establishment of the introduced parasitoid Clausenia purpurea Ishii, which was then believed to be the main cause of the biological control of the mealybug. Since the late 1980s, outbreaks of P. cryptus have been recorded mainly in new citrus varieties, such as red grapefruits, pomelo, "sweety" and several peeling varieties. The current outbreaks are probably related to the susceptibility of these mentioned varieties to P. cryptus, and to the adverse effects of Insect Growth Regulators to coccinellid predators, especially Scymnus spp. The introduced C. purpurea and two other local encyrtid parasitoids, Leptomastix near algirica and Anagyrus diversicornis Mercet, rarely emerged from samples of P. cryptus collected during 1996-1998. Four further parasitoid species were introduced into Israel during 1996-1997 against P. cryptus: from central Asia, the platygasterids Allotropa burrelli Muesebeck and A. convexifrons Muesebeck and the encyrtid, Pseudaphycus malinus Gahan; and from Japan, Anagyrus sawadai Ishii. A. convexifrons and A. sawadai successfully parasitized P. cryptus and, therefore, were released in the field but only A. sawadai has so far been recovered. A considerable reduction in population densities of the pest has been recorded since May, 1998, in the major release site of the latter species.

Bogo, A. & Mantle, P. 2000. Oligosaccharides in the honeydew of Coccoidea scale Insects: Coccus hesperidum L. and a new Stigmacoccus sp. in Brazil. Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil 29(3): 589-595. [BogoMa2000]

Notes: Analysis of the honeydew from an as yet undescribed, though distinctive, Brazilian Stigmacoccus sp. (near S. asper Hempel) by paper chromatography, Fast atom bombardment (FAB-MS) and Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) identified fructose and glucose as monosaccharides and sucrose, maltose, trehalulose, trehalose and a hexose-hexitol as disaccharides. Erlose and glucosyl erlose have been identified as the tri- and tetra-saccharides in Stigmacoccus sp. and characterised for the first time in scale insects by modern techniques of linkage analysis. The same erlose oligosaccharides were recognised in honeydew of the common scale insect Coccus hesperidum L., together with the pentamer of this series, maltosyl erlose, therefore recognising that specific metabolic transformations of sugars into this oligomeric series occur rather widely in scale insects.

Bogo, A., Watson, G.W., Mantle, P.G. & Mottana G.M. 2001 (1999). Honeydew sugars eliminated by Stigmacoccus sp. nr. asper Hempel (Hemiptera: Margarodidae) feeding on leguminous trees in Brazil. Entomologica 33(1999): 275-278. [BogoWaMa2001]

Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS VIII International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at Wye College (U.K.), Aug. 31st - Sept. 6th, 1998.] The sooty mould coating the trunks of mature trees of Schizolobium excelsum in Brazil was found to be associated with honeydew being eliminated by an undescribed species of margarodid near Stigmacoccus asper Hempel. Analysis of the honeydew sugars by paper chromatography revealed a complex composition. The principal sugar was sucrose, but there were significant amounts of fructose, glucose and three components identified as di-, tri- and tetrasaccharides. The disaccharides were maltose, trehalose, trehalulose and a hexose-hexitol. The other, apparently novel, pair of oligosaccharides were composed of glucose(s) 1,4 linked to the glucose of sucrose. The sugar composition of the tree sap was also determined and found to be glucose and sucrose only. The findings, therefore, imply significant and novel metabolic transformations of sugars by the scale insect and/or its microbial symbionts.

Bogran, C.E., Heinz, K.M. & Ciomperlik, M.A. 2002. Interspecific competition among insect parasitoids: Field experiments with whiteflies as hosts in cotton. Ecology 83(3): 653-668. [BogranHeCi2002]