Editor: Dug Miller

Systematic Entomol. Lab.

Building 005, Room 137

10300 Baltimore Avenue

Plant Sciences Institute

Beltsville Agric. Res. Ctr.

Beltsville, MD 20705 USA

dmiller@sel.barc.usda.gov

Volume XXVIII December 30, 2004

From Chris Hodgson a Questionaire concerning the site for ISSIS 2007: At the ISSIS meeting in Padua in 2001, it was suggested that the 2007 meeting should take place in Egypt. However, that was before the situation in the Middle East had worsened. The International Committee of ISSIS feels that it is important that as many delegates as possible should attend these meetings. Each meeting takes a lot of organisation and a final decision needs to be made at least 2 years prior to the actual meeting. So a decision regarding the venue for the next meeting needs to be made this Spring. Prof. Dr. Amin of Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt is keen to hold the meeting there but, in case the present problems in Iraq and Israel/Palestine are still continuing in three months time, Dr. Manuala Branco, Departmento Florestal in Lisbon, Portugal, has kindly agreed to hold the meeting there. In order to help us make the most democratic decision, we would very much appreciate your response to the following questions. Please choose only one answer for each question.

1. If you had a choice, which of the following venues could you attend (choose one):

A. Egypt B. Portugal C. Both D. Neither

2. If it is necessary for you to get permission to attend ISSIS meetings from your employer, would you anticipate having problems in attending a meeting in (choose one):

A. Egypt B. Portugal C. Both D. Neither

3. If it is necessary to apply for a grant to attend the next meeting, either for travel, subsistence or both, would you anticipate having problems if the meeting was held in:

A. Egypt B. Portugal C. Both D. Neither.

4. If you had a choice between the two venues, which would you choose:

A. Egypt B. Portugal C. No preference.

If you have any other comments to make which might affect the choice of site, please add these to your reply. The International Committee would be most grateful if you would either return a copy of this questionnaire by post (to dug Miller at the address given above), or email your choice for each of the above questions to dmiller@sel.barc.usda.gov. In either case, please respond AS SOON AS POSSIBLE and not later than January 30, 2005. Thank you.

Loss of a great coccidologist: Jan Koteja was an innovative scientist and added numerous interesting and exciting bodies of information to the study of scale insects. According to ScaleNet he wrote 114 research papers on scale insects (and there likely are several others in press) and described at least 7 new families, 20 new genera, and 42 new species. He frequently had ideas that didn’t “fit in the box” of tradition; but in many instances his hypotheses have gained wide acceptance in coccidology. His findings in systematics, morphology, phylogeny, and fossils will remain important reading for scientist well into the future. He will be greatly missed.

A message from Pawel Koteja: I am sorry to inform you that my father, Jan Koteja, has died on Aug 19. The funeral will be on Rakowice Cemetery in Krakow, on Aug 24 at 13.00. As you may know, he has been retired for two years, but has worked at home to his last day. I know that he has been in the process of revising and writing manuscripts - some of which, I believe, were contributions to books or special journal issues. He has also worked on several specimens of amber inclusions, some of which came from his colleagues and various museums. Soon after the funeral I will start digging through his computer and drawers to find the connections, and will do my best to return all the materials to the owners. As you guess, it will not be an easy job - especially because my scientific interests were quite distinct from those of my father. I obviously know - since my childhood, indeed - several names of his colleagues (e.g., Ferenz Kozar, Michael Kosztarab, Yair Ben-Dov, Evelyna Danzig, and others), but I have only vague information about his current contacts and commitments. I will certainly be able to find the connections, but it would ease my job if the information about my father's death was distributed through "The Scale" and a mailing list of scale insect specialists you probably have. I would especially appreciate it if those who had sent specimens or collaborated on current manuscripts e-mailed me and helped with identifying the specimens and provided instructions concerning returning of the materials. Some of the borrowed as well as my father's own specimens are partly or perhaps even completely prepared for microscopic examination. I hope somebody may be interested in finishing the job.

Ferenc Kozár, Hungary: Finally in the spring of 2004 my book “Ortheziidae of the World” was published. Now I can return to my research on Rhizoecini mealybugs. To this point in time I have published on one new genus, including a new species. Also four new Ripersiella species have been described from the Australian-Pacific region. A World revision of Ripersiella including eight new species has been submitted. In total, the number of species in this genus has increased to 73. Two new genera of the Rhizoecini are in print and one genus is reestablished. These genera include 9 new species. A new species of Geococcus has also been submitted for publication. I hope to finish a short revision of the genus Rhizoecus, with a description of at least four new species, increasing the total number of species to 83. Currently I am working on the identification of part of Imre Foldi’s Pseudococcidae collection from South America. I also am planning to do more work in on the Eriococcidae.

Gillian on the move: From 7 December 2004, Gillian Watson will be working as Associate Insect Biosystematist (covering Sternorrhyncha and Thysanoptera) at the following address: Plant Pest Diagnostic Center, California Department of Food & Agriculture, 3294 Meadowview Road, Sacramento, California 95832-1448, USA. Tel.: (+) 916 262-1100, Fax: (+) 916 262-1190, Email: gwatson@cdfa.ca.gov

Yair Ben-Dov, Israel: The Catalogue of the Diaspididae (Ben-dov, Y & German, V. 2003. A systematic catalogue of the Diaspididae (armoured scale insects) of the world, subfamilies Aspidiotinae, Comstockiellinae and Odonaspidinae. Intercept Publishers, Ltd. Andover, England, 1111 pp.) was published on December 2003, and is now available for purchase from the Publisher [see short review below]. Subsequently, the database for the genera and species of the above-listed subfamilies have been joined with the Diaspidinae and Leucaspidinae (compiled by Dug Miller). Consequently, the whole Diaspididae family is now available on-line on ScaleNet. I have finalized (cut-off date December 2003) the preparation of the manuscript of The Catalogue of the Margarodidae. The Catalogue will be published in 2005. During 2002 and 2003 I have proceeded inputting data for ScaleNet, the joint project with Dug Miller. I have been adding data on the families Aclerdidae, Asterolecaniidae, Beesoniidae, Carayonemidae, Coccidae, Dactylopiidae, Diaspididae (subfamilies Aspidiotinae, Comstockiellinae and Odonaspidinae), Kerriidae, Lecanodiaspididae, Margarodidae and Pseudococcidae. The website Directory of Scale Insect (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) Systematists, was developed and is now available for users at the URL: This website was developed to provide information on systematists of scale insects, beginning with Carl von Linnaeus (1707-1778) to the present. “Scale Insect” systematists is regarded, in the context of this directory, a person who has been either an author or co-author of a new taxon in the Coccoidea. The Directory presents the following details: For deceased systematists - full names, year of birth and year of death, reference to biography and a portrait (when available); for living systematists the user may retrieve information including full names, affiliation address, e-mail address, URL of website page and a portrait. It is my wish to update and upgrade the Directory, therefore, feedback from colleagues and users will be highly appreciated. If you discover that a particular scale insect systematist is not included in the Directory, or you have new information and corrections to be included, please send the information to .

Rosa Henderson, New Zealand: This year has been notable for travel, first away to Turkey to participate in ISSIS X at Adana, and secondly a reorganised life with a long daily commute across town to work, since the April move into our new Landcare Research building. We have mixed feelings about this building, although on the whole it is a great improvement for the insect collection, e.g. some pluses … pinned insects are now housed in unit trays in flat drawer cabinets instead of upright store boxes… the Coccoidea are all in one area … and there is a dedicated small lab for slide preparation. The minuses of a noisy environment (unlined concrete walls, floors and ceilings) may be lessened if we can get sound-absorbing additions. Surely, everyone enjoyed ISSIS X as much as I did! As well, a developing collaboration with Ben Normark from that meeting promises much for the revision of the NZ Diaspididae. The Normark Lab team at the University of Massachusetts are sequencing the NZ species that I send over, and I hope this information will throw some light on the Leucaspis armoured scales in particular. At this end I am busy collecting (with the help of two enthusiastic friends) and making slides of everything we find, while the list of possible new species grows apace. The NZ Coccidae are not completely forgotten. Chris Hodgson’s and my monograph describing adult males, pupae and prepupae came out in June as “Fauna of New Zealand 51,” and Chris has kindly written up descriptions of the females of two new Umbonichiton species, for a paper that we hope to have published soon. Then there are interesting eriococcids lurking on the descriptions agenda. Life is never dull when studying scale insects!

Jon Martin, London, UK: Major changes are afoot at the Natural History Museum in London. In order to provide space for the building of phase 2 of their Darwin Center project, the existing Entomology building is scheduled for demolition in 2005. General background to these plans is given on the web link http://www.nhm.ac.uk /entomology/move.html. The details of which parts of the Entomology collections will be temporarily transferred to which locations are still being finalised. However, the liklihood is that the Coccoidea collections will be located at a facility near the Wimbledon tennis grounds, about 4 miles (6 kilometers) from the museum itself. This will have implications for intending visitors for the next three years. As part of the preparations for moving this huge collection, the slide collection has now been substantially updated from recent catalogues and the Zoological Record. The dry collection had been in three sections for many decades - a "main" collection (material in shunt boxes, alphabetically arranged), the former Newstead Collection (housed in display drawers, arranged by family / subfamily) and what was euphemistically termed a "supplementary" collection (unarranged but named duplicates of material already on slides). All this dry material has now been melded into the main dry collection, in shunt boxes and other small boxes, in one alphabetical series, not arranged by family. While this was being done, the names were brought up to date following the system of the slide collection. Holdings of dry material have now also been databased at a very basic level - i.e. dry material present in or absent from NHM collection. An inevitable consequence of such a major reorganisation of a collection has been the disposal of much unsorted material in poor condition. However, the same exercise has revealed valuable material, including type material, that has now been fully incorporated into the collection. The cabinets that housed the Newstead and supplementary collections have been released for re-use outside the museum, thus minimising the volume of furniture to be moved in 2005. Jon Martin, the curator with responsibility for the coccoid collections, suggests that 2005 is not likely to be a good year to plan to visit the London NHM's collections. Also, enquiries are likely to be dealt with more quickly if material is already slide-mounted.

Uri Gerson, Israel: Thank you for your message about the new “The Scale.” As you may know, I am now retired (albeit still reasonably active) and have not "touched" scale insects for many years. So the only contribution I can offer is a short chapter from our book (with Bob Smiley and Ron Ochoa), "Mites (Acari) for Pest Control". This chapter (38-4) is attached, for you to decide whether the included information could be of interest to the readers of “The Scale.”

Acarine biocontrol agents as enemies of scale insects

Scale insects (Homoptera: Coccoidea) are major plant pests, causing their damage by feeding, injecting toxins, transmitting plant viruses and excreting honeydew on which disfiguring sooty-mould fungi grow. The most important families are the Diaspididae (armoured scale insects), Coccidae (soft scales), Pseudococcidae (mealybugs) and Margarodidae. Most scale insects (with the notable exception of the mealybugs) are sedentary during most of their lives. After eclosion the first-instar nymphs (‘crawlers’) leave their birth place and, unless blown away by winds, settle at near-by sites, thus often forming colonies. In most cases the settled female insect spends the rest of her life at that location. The post-crawler instars either lose their legs when moulting or, if these appendages are retained, seldom move. The short- lived, winged males lack mouthparts, serving merely to inseminate the females. The colonies, while intensifying scale insect damage at their sites, also increase the probability of being detected by natural enemies (including ABAs). Another factor that facilitates the biological control of individual scale insects is the long life cycle, which prolongs their exposure time. Scale insects usually require several months to raise a generation, a period less than half the time by ABAs, which thus produce more than a single generation on each host scale.

ABAs of armoured scale insects

The body of the Diaspididae is covered by a closely-adhering shield that usually protects them from ABAs. However, as the crawlers hatch they raise a posterior flap of the shield in order to emerge. This portal serves Hemisarcoptes and Saniosulus to gain access to the females' bodies and eggs. The mites then feed on the body of the female scale, its young and eggs. The Diaspididae is the family that has attracted the most acarine parasites and predators, being the only coccoid family that has a specific genus of associated natural enemies (e.g. Hemisarcoptes) that can control its populations (Gerson et al., 1990). Most of the predatory Eupalopsellidae whose prey are known feed on crawlers (although they may be found on the adults), as do some Camerobiidae and Cheyletidae that occur on fruit trees (e.g. Moraes et al., 1989). The small bodies of the crawlers do not suffice for the development of the generalist parasitoid Pyemotidae, which often attack adult diaspidids. Pyemotids are generally rare on scale insects, although De Lillo & Porcelli (1993) recorded parasitoism rates of about 30% on a Cotoneaster-infesting armoured scale in Italy. Stigmaeidae, especially species of Agistemus, may feed on armoured scale crawlers (e.g. Ehara, 1962; Farag et al., 1990), but probably do not affect their populations. Another potential stigmaeid predator of diaspidids is Eryngiopus, because three of its species were found under the shields of pestiferous scale insects (Vacante & Gerson, 1989). Several Phytoseiidae feed, reproduce, and complete their development when offered only diaspidid eggs and crawlers (McMurtry, 1963; Ragusa & Swirski, 1977). At least one, Typhlodromus baccettii Lombardini, seems to have a special relationship with Carulaspis, a cypress- inhabiting diaspidid; almost all scales sampled in the spring at Florence, Italy, had the mites under their shields. The predator devoured the eggs of Carulaspis, but may also feed on available phytophagous mites (Baccetti, 1960). The recent literature on diaspidids as a food source for phytoseiids was reviewed by Schausberger (1998), who demonstrated that three generalists developed and reproduced when given an exclusive diet of crawlers of the San Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Comstock). Generalist predators in the families Anystidae, Bdellidae, Cunaxidae and Erythraeidae consume diaspidid crawlers (Gerson et al., 1990), but such feeding appears to be opportunistic and there is no evidence that it affects the pests’ populations. The citrus red mite, Panonychus citri, has a negative, non-destructive association with the California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell), a major pest of citrus. Orange leaves were infested with adult mites and about 100 crawlers were added almost daily. Half the crawlers settled on leaves that had been infested by the mites for 1-4 days, their settlement rate decreasing thereafter. By day 11 no scales were able to settle, suggesting that the mites had rendered these leaves unsuitable for the crawlers (Ebeling, 1948). The mechanism of this inhibition is not known.

ABAs of Soft scales, mealybugs and other scale insects

Soft scales do not appear to have any specific acarine predators or parasites, but may be parasitised by opportunistic ABAs, such as Pyemotes (Vaivanijkul & Haramoto, 1969). The eggs and crawlers of several soft scale species served as subsistence food for Amblyseius swirskii in the laboratory, but only few became adults and oviposition was negligible (Ragusa & Swirski, 1977). Mycophagous Tydeidae serve as sanitizing agents in citrus grove, because by feeding on the sooty-mould that develops on coccid honeydew they reduce the attendant damage (Mendel & Gerson, 1982). Tydeids may serve a similar function in regard to the honeydew of mealybugs, whose eggs and crawlers provided survival food for phytoseiids. Some species fed on this diet and a few eggs were produced, but none of the progeny developed beyond the protonymphal stage (Ragusa di Chiara & Tsolakis, 1995). The honeydew of mealybugs provided sufficient nutrients for the production of a few eggs by Amblyseius limonicus and enhanced the females’ survival (McMurtry & Scriven, 1965). Larvae and nymphs of Leptus sp. and Bochartia sp. (Erythraeidae) attacked the nymphs and adults of Drosicha mangiferae Green (Margarodidae), a pest of mango in India. The mites parasitised the scales and sucked out their body fluids, causing the hosts to blacken and shrivel. The mites killed about 15-20% of the pests, were active from January to May and later migratedg to the soil (Tandon & Lal, 1976). The trombidiid Allothrombium mitchelli Davis fed on and seemed to reduce the numbers of the beech scale (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lindinger, Eriococcidae) in the eastern USA (Wiggins et al., 2001). This variety of reports suggests that additional natural enemies of scale insects remain to be discovered, especially in the tropics. However, the available evidence indicates that, with the exception of Hemisarcoptes, few ABAs capable of controlling scale insect pests will be found.

Francesco Porcelli, Italy: The study of the interactions between Septobasidium and the Diaspididae is finished. I refrain from providing extensive information because some parts of the research are from the thesis of Carmela Stigliano. She will conclude her work in January and a publication will follow. I have almost finished the first study of the action of Aphanocladium album (fungi) against L. viburni. See the attached picture of an infected scale. This is a joint study with Prof. Ciccarese, a mycologist here from the faculty of agriculture. A study about paternal heterochromatization has just started; we have a lot of material of Unaspis euonymi at hand and this image shows the general structure of the reproductive system. Tuoloidin blue is the intra vitam stain.

Imre Foldi, Paris, France: Since I am now retired and no longer President of the Entomological Society of France, I now have much time to work on scale insects. Indeed, I continue full time and am focusing my research on the Margarodidae and related families. A series of papers are in preparation on the archaeococcoids, starting with the Matsucoccidae of the Mediterranean basin (publication probably in December, 2004), followed by others on the Monophlebidae, the Margarodidae and so on. Hopefully, I will complete a generic revision of the archaeococcoids. Another very exciting research project is a collaborative work with Chris Hodgson on the phylogeny of the Margarodidae sensu Morrison and related taxa based on adult male morphology; the first results were presented by Hodgson at ISSIS-X, Adana, Turkey (2004). We have nearly completed describing and illustrating representative males of most of the higher taxa and hope to obtain a well supported phylogenetic tree in the final analysis. This year (2004), I had the pleasure of a visit from Ferenc Kozár, who has just finished his book on the Ortheziidae of the World, in my laboratory. I very much enjoyed working with him on diverse aspects of scale insects. In addition, I must mention the visit of Douglas Williams (November, 2004) which, as always, was a very pleasant experience.

Lerzan Erkilic, Turkey: ISSIS-X was held in Adana, Turkey on 19-23 April 2004. We have 52 attendances from 14 different countries. During the meeting 10 different sessions were held and 44 presentations were given. Beside oral presentations there were 20 posters on different aspects of scale insect research. We hope that the attendees of the meeting had a nice time during their stay in Adana. We also missed a significant number of colleagues who couldn’t attend for diverse reasons.

Evelyna Danzig, Russia: This year I have finished the second and last part of the revision of the genus Phenacoccus of the former USSR. It includes 49 species. In addition I wrote and published in “Entomologicheskoe Obozrenie” a work on Phenacoccus spp. inhabiting different species of Picea with a discussion of polymorphism of the wide spread species Ph. piceae Loew. I reported on this work at the X Scale Insect Symposium in Adana. I want to say that the traveling in Turkey was very impressive and very well arranged. Now I am close to finishing an investigation on the genus Euripersia which I consider to be a junior synonym of Fonscolombia. It is a very interesting root mealybug characterized by ovoviviparous reproduction. The size of the genus is not large, but it is difficult to find characters to diagnose the genus when compared with Phenacoccus.

Ilya Gavrilov, Russia: I am currently finishing my dissertation (Ph.D. thesis): “Systematics and cytogenetics of scale insects (Homoptera, Coccinea) of European Russia”. It will include keys for all species from the region and neighbouring territories, descriptions of new and little known species, and a cytogenetic review of more than 40 species from 29 genera and 8 families. A recent article was published in "Entomologicheskoe Obozrenie": “The scale insects of Volga area” with descriptions of a new mealybug genus and species – Perystrix ulmaria Gavrilov, 2004. In co-operation with Dr. Valentina Kuznetsova, I am preparing a review of coccid chromosome systems for a special Russian book dedicated to evolutionary and genetic problems. I am also preparing a review of chromosome numbers in scale insects of the world (it will be in English). The review will be useful since most of this kind of information (with the exception of the works of Brown and Nur) is currently scattered in obscure publications.

Chris Hodgson, Wales, UK: Projects completed or almost completed -- With Dug Miller and Samual Goncalves: a new species of Pseudotectococcus from Brazil ( Lundiana 5: 51-72); with Rosa Henderson: the males of the indigenous soft scales of New Zealand (Fauna of New Zealand No. 51); with Rosa Henderson: 2 new species of soft scale from New Zealand (submitted to Zootaxa); with Prof. Takagi: a new gall-inducing coccoid on dipterocarps (almost completed); with Carl-Axel Gertsson: four new species of mealybug and a new species of soft scale from Greenland (about to be submitted); also the description of the males of nine of the 11 coccoid species known from Greenland (about to be submitted). Work in progress: With Imre Foldi: the phylogeny of the margarodids and related families based on male morphology; also the rest of the scale insect families based on male morphology; with Penny Gullan: revision of the Australian Coccidae; with Dug Miller: descriptions of the type species of the eriococcid genera in South America; with Sophia Gounari: the scale insect sources of honeydew used by honeybees for honey production in Greece; with Rosa Henderson: the immature stages of the soft scales of New Zealand.

Penny Gullan, California, USA: Penny's lab at UCD now has three graduate students, Janie Booth, Cory Unruh and Nathaniel (Nate) Hardy, and one postdoctoral researcher, Takumasa (Demian) Kondo, all studying the phylogenetic systematics of scale insects. Cory is studying iceryine margarodids and especially Steatococcus, Janie is working on Matsucoccus, Nate is investigating Australian eriococcids, and Demian is continuing his coccid studies but with some "diversification" into other families. Much of our funding comes from a PEET (Partnerships for Enhancing Expertise in Taxonomy) National Science Fund grant to Penny, with Dug Miller (USDA) and Ben Normark (University of Massachusetts) as collaborators. Check out our lab web page for details of all of our projects and activites: http://entomology.ucdavis.edu/gullanandcranstonlab/ In June 2003, as part of our PEET project, Penny hosted an informal five-day training workshop on scale insect systematics and phylogeny, with emphasis on the morphology of adult females. This workshop, or "Scale Camp", involved almost all PEET project trainees and participants and was held in the Department of Entomology at UCD. Doug Williams (who visited from England for the event), Dug Miller, Ray Gill and Demian Kondo helped Penny with instruction, and Ph.D. student, Patrycja Gazinska (Agriculture University in Warsaw), even traveled from Poland to attend. For more details go to: http://entomology.ucdavis.edu/Scalewebpages/peet/workshop.html Ben Normark hosted a second Scale Camp, held at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, in October 2004, with the theme of molecular phylogenetic analysis. All members of Penny's lab (except Nate who was in India) went to Amherst to participate, and everyone learned a great deal about scale insect DNA data, including how wacky it is! Plus we all had a wonderful time interacting with Ben, postdoc Geoff Morse, and graduate students Matt Gruwell and Rodger Gwiazdowski. Lyn Cook, from the Australian National University in Canberra, Australia, also participated in training at the second Scale Camp and visited UCD afterwards for two weeks to collaborate with Penny. Lyn's expertise in obtaining and analyzing coccoid DNA, especially aligning nucleotide sequences using secondary structure, was very helpful to the students. Members of our lab have been traveling a lot since publication of the last edition of "The Scale" in April 2003. In addition to flying east to the Scale Camp held at University of Massachusetts, there have been two major trips that have involved two or more members of our lab. The first was the Tenth International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies (ISSIS-X) in Adana, Turkey, from April 19-24, 2004. Penny, Cory and Demian traveled to Turkey to attend ISSIS-X, where they each presented a paper. They thoroughly enjoyed ISSIS, the Turkish hospitality and the tour of Cappadocia, and wish to especially thank Lerzan Erkilic and Bora Kaydan. The second big trip was to Australia for the International Congress of Entomology (ICE), which took place in Brisbane in August 2004. Cory and Nate presented posters at ICE on their scale insect research and Penny gave two talks, but only one on scale insects (on coccoid-eucalypt radiations, co-authored with Lyn Cook, of ANU). In January 2004, Penny and Lyn also co-authored an invited talk on their eriococcid research, presented to the IV Southern Connection meeting (an international congress of scientists who study southern hemisphere biology and earth history; go to: http://www.uct.ac.za/conferences/sc2004), held in Cape Town, South Africa. Demian Kondo completed a Ph.D. on soft scale (Coccidae: Myzolecaniinae) systematics at Auburn University, Alabama, in early 2003 and he commenced a post-doctoral position with the PEET project in April 2003. He still primarily works on the phylogenetic systematics of soft scale insects. His major project is a taxonomic revision of a group of coccids that feed only on Macaranga plants in intimate association with Crematogaster ants, but he and Penny have a number of smaller taxonomic projects to describe other scale insect species, including a new Peruvian species of Cryptostigma, a new Colombian lac insect and two new Brazilian mealybug species. Demian spends most of his time drawing and describing scale insects, but prepares some slide-mounts, does a bit of databasing, and has (reluctantly) learnt some molecular techniques. In September 2003, Demian and Peter Cranston went to Jamaica for a week, specifically to collect at the type locality of Ferrisia virgata in Kingston. They ventured into Kingston at the quietest time of the week, early Sunday morning, to avoid attracting unwanted attention as they searched for mealybugs on the street trees. Their success in finding the target mealybugs just goes to show that some type localities remain mealybug-friendly for at least a hundred years! In late 2003, Demian went on a collecting trip (organized by Dr. Elizabeth Arias from UC Berkeley) to a number of forested areas in Chile, where he braved the rain for several weeks to collect scale insects, mainly eriococcids. Cory Unruh, who began her graduate studies in October 2002, is researching the taxonomy and phylogeny of iceryine Margarodidae for her Ph.D. dissertation. She has been preparing taxonomic redescriptions of two Heteromargarodes species (ground pearls), producing a database for Steatococcus species, scoring iceryine margarodids for cladistic analysis of morphological data, and also acquiring and analyzing molecular data on iceryines. Her molecular phylogenetic data from the large subunit ribosomal DNA gene (28S) suggest that the genera Icerya and Steatococcus are not monophyletic. Cory will be testing these first hypotheses of relationships with additional genes and morphological data, and is keen to obtain more iceryine species for her analyses. Please collect and preserve (in 90-100% ethanol) any margarodids that you see and post them to Cory. Thanks to everyone who has sent specimens already. As well as doing lots of lab work, Cory has made trips to Turkey for ISSIS-X (April 2004), to the south-west USA for fieldwork (spring 2004), to Australia for ICE (August 2004), and to Montana and Salt Lake City, USA, for Entomological Society of America meetings. Janie Booth commenced her graduate studies in late September 2003 and is studying the systematics and evolution of the pine-infesting genus Matsucoccus (Margarodidae). During her first academic year, Janie completed a substantial amount of coursework and did several short collecting trips in California and the east coast of the U.S. She also presented a talk on Matsucoccus at the Western Forest Insect Work Conference, held in southern California in late April 2004. Her most valuable data for phylogenetic reconstruction are nucleotide sequences because Matsucoccus is very conservative morphologically. Janie has successfully sequenced the small subunit ribosomal DNA gene (18S) from a number of Matsucoccus samples from around the world (thanks to all of you who have sent specimens), and she has commenced work on several other potentially informative genes. Her preliminary analyses suggest that she will be able to reconstruct relationships among Matsucoccus species successfully using DNA data alone, but she needs many more species yet. Janie is using morphological data from adult females and nymphs to augment and help interpret the molecular data. Check out her Matsucoccus WEB at:

http://entomology.ucdavis. edu/gullanandcranstonlab/MatsucoccusWEB/MAIN.htm

Nate Hardy trained in entomology at Cornell University and joined the Gullan/Cranston lab in July 2003, initially as a volunteer and then as a postgraduate researcher. He worked on a project (begun by the late Dr. Jack Beardsley) on the Australian eriococcid genus Lachnodius, including preparing taxonomic drawings, making a Lucid key to species and reconstructing the phylogeny of Lachnodius and its relatives based on morphology. The project expanded so much that the systematics and evolution of Lachnodius, Opisthoscelis and related Australian eriococcids now forms the topic of his Ph.D. dissertation, which he formerly commenced in October 2004. Nate and Penny will be doing fieldwork in Victoria, Australia, during February 2005, to visit most of Jack Beardsley's former collecting sites. Nate already has visited Australia to attend ICE, where he presented a poster on relationships of Lachnodius and its relatives. In November 2004, Nate traveled to northeast India where he collected some scale insects and helped Gavin Svenson (from the Whiting lab at Brigham Young University, Utah) collect mantids. In Spring 2004, Nate spent a couple of months scoring mealybugs for morphological cladistic analysis to complement previous phylogenetic research on Pseudococcidae that used molecular data (see Downie & Gullan, 2004). Our mealybug phylogeny project is continuing as more specimens become available for both DNA and morphological work. We are especially interested in obtaining first-instar nymphs for as many mealybug species as possible and, in particular need specimens of legless mealybugs (Sphaerococcus and similar taxa), Rhizoecine and Phenacoccinae for DNA work. Two undergraduate students, Meredith Chalfant and Sarah Thrasher, worked with Penny during 2003 as part-time lab assistants funded by the PEET grant. Meredith worked on taxonomic illustrations for the project on Lachnodius. Sarah gathered taxonomic measurements and prepared an illustration of the adult female of a new species of Tessarobelus (Margarodidae) collected by Penny in New Caledonia.

Benjamin Normark, Massachusetts, USA, bnormark@ent.umass.edu. The main project in my laboratory is molecular systematics of Diaspididae. Currently we are writing up three manuscripts: (1) molecular systematics of Diaspididae, using 95 species and 3 genes (first author Geoff Morse); (2) molecular systematics of the Aspidiotus nerii complex (first author Lisa Provencher), and (3) molecular systematics of beech scale, Cryptococcus fagisuga (first author Rodger Gwiazdowski). Matthew Gruwell is doing his Ph.D. dissertation on the primary endosymbionts of diaspidids. I am especially interested in the unusual genetic systems of scale insects and related issues such as: sex ratios, sex determination, genomic imprinting, ploidy levels of bacteriomes/mycetomes, and cytogenetics. I have just received an NSF-CAREER grant that supports work on the

molecular systematics of diaspidids and their endosymbionts for the next 5 years. This grant enables me to recruit an additional graduate student at a generous stipend level, so please alert me to any talented undergraduates interested in the evolution of scale insects. I am also interested in establishing collaborative relationships with colleagues who can provide diverse samples of diaspidids for the phylogeny project. One long-term goal is developing a "DNA-barcoding" capability for molecular identification of armored scales at different life stages. If your job involves identifying diaspidids, and you are interested in helping develop this capability, please contact me.

Dug Miller, Maryland, USA: This year has been a bit traumatic personally, but through the dedication and assistance of several colleagues in the Systematic Entomology Laboratory (particularly Alessandra Rung, Gary Miller, Debra Creel, Nit Malikul, and Michael Schauff) we have been able to make progress on several ongoing research projects. In collaboration with Yair Ben-Dov and Gary Gibson we have completed catalogs on several small families including the Cerococcidae, Halimococcidae, Kermesidae, Micrococcidae, Ortheziidae, Phenacoleachiidae, Phoenicococcidae, and Stictococcidae. These catalogs will be combined in a book in the series published by Intercept and is authored by Miller, Gimpel, and Rung. A great deal of effort was devoted to adding data from Ferenc Kozár’s book on the Ortheziidae. The final volume on the second half of the Diaspididae is currently in manuscript form, but it is so large that even proofing it takes weeks or months. The book on the economic armored scales of the US finally appears that “it will see the light of day,” since it is due to be published by Cornell University Press in the summer of 2005. It contains a color plate, line drawing, and detailed description for each of more than 100 species, and has field keys and keys to slide-mounted adult females. It is set up in the same large format of books like Johnson and Lyon (1976). Our main thrust for the year has been to complete 2 keys in the Lucid system. The family key is in the beta-testing phase and will be on line in the near future; it includes all extant families and provides numerous images of the characters and the structures included in the fairly extensive glossary. Line drawings, automontage images, and habitus images are included. Authors include Miller, Rung, Venable, and Gill. The second key is on the 50 most commonly intercepted mealybug species at US ports-of-entry. Its completion is expected in 2005. Other projects include a revision of the armored scale genus Furcaspis with Douglas Williams, a paper on the eriococcid genera of South America with Chris Hodgson, and new research on the Dysmicoccus bispinosus group of mealybugs. We are doing our best to keep ScaleNet up to date, but the lack of a person dedicated to this task makes it difficult. Karen Veilleux is doing a wonderful job of keeping the reference files in ScaleNet up to date. However, if you see items that need changes or know of publications that need to be added, please let us know. A major project in the collection area is to incorporate the Kosztarab collection which was kindly donated to the US National Museum of Natural History in the fall of 2003. The collection includes more than 20,000 slides and numerous envelopes of dry material. It is an important addition to the collection and we are working diligently on the compilation of a detailed inventory.

Douglas Williams, London, UK: Please don’t hold Douglas responsible for this note; it was written by the lesser dug, i.e. Miller. The major accomplishment for the year was the publication of his new book on the mealybugs of southern Asia; a short review is given below. I can’t write enough about how critically important this work is to our identification services in the USA. We currently are (perhaps “were” after the Tsunami) importing large quantities of tropical fruit from this part of the world, but it was nearly impossible to determine many of the common mealybug species that are intercepted at ports-of-entry. Douglas’s book solves this problem. During the year, Douglas also published at least 3 other papers, 1 on a Rhizoecus associated with Acropyga ants, another on 2 new mealybugs from the Falkland Islands, and a synopsis of the mealybug genus Neochavesia. Who knows what other papers emerged this year. He also took his annual trek to “The States” and worked with Penny Gullan in California on research on the iceryines of Australia. Later he visited with me in Maryland and worked on a joint project on the genus Furcaspis. In November he made a quick trip to France to work with Daniele Ferrero and Imre Foldi. [And this man is retired and celebrated his 70^th birthday several years ago].

Louise Russell to reach the century mark May 6, 2005: I just had lunch with Louise Russell and Matilda and Michael Kosztarab and was amazed at how well Louise is doing at the age of 99. The remarkable thing is that she ate an entire entree of 2 crab cakes, mashed potatoes and gravy, coleslaw, and a salad. Louise lives in her home of more than 50 years by herself, and although she is nearly blind, she takes care of herself with only limited assistance from visitors and neighbors. Manya Stoetzel keeps in close contact with Louise and provides assistance and advice whenever possible. If you are interested in sending Louise a congratulatory note for becoming a centurion, her address is: 9 Sunnyside Road, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910, USA or you can send me a card or note around May 6 and I will present it to her at the celebration that we will be holding here at Beltsville on that day. All are welcome to attend the festivities. Contact me for details. In case there are some who don’t remember Louise, she published a monograph on Asterolecanium in 1941 that still is very useful for making identifications. Most of her career was spent working on aphids and whiteflies. She was employed by the US Department of Agriculture for 47 years and only retired because the mandatory retirement age was 70.

Professor Tremblay honored: Antonio Porcelli drew my attention to some truly fascinating recent research on mealybug endosymbionts including the discovery of bacterial symbionts inside bacterial symbionts that reside inside the bodies of mealybugs. Antonio suggested that a short note should be included in “The Scale” pointing out that one of the involved bacterial genera was named in honor of Professor Tremblay (Tremblaya) in recognition of the important work that he did on scale insect endsymbionts. It also is worth mentioning that a different genus is named in honor of the German coccidologist P. Buchner (Buchnera).

Herdsman ants and their mealybug partners: A new book: Dill, Williams, and Maschwitz 2002. Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft Frankfurt am Main, 557, 373 pp. This wonderful book documents the remarkable symbiosis between Dolichoderus ants and mealybugs in the tribe Allomyrmococcini. The book has 6 chapters including an introduction, an overview of the distribution of the herdsman, taxonomy of herdsman species in Dolichoderus, taxonomy of mealybugs in the Allomyrmococcini, biology, and herdsman without mealybug associates. The publication is printed on quality paper and the illustrations, SEM images, and color images are of very well done. The color photographs of ants with attached mealybugs on their bodies are quite remarkable. The chapter written by Doug Williams “IV The mealybug tribe Allomyrmococcini and its association with herdsman ants of the genus Dolichoderus in southern Asia” gives a detailed treatment of 11 genera and 37 species in the tribe. Characters that diagnose the tribe are unusually heavily sclerotized ostioles and large expanded claw digitules. The line drawings are particularly impressive since most specimens contain large numbers of setae and some of the setae are remarkably long and difficult to draw. The revision includes a list of all species, a key to the genera of the tribe, and detailed descriptions of each of the included species. In all cases the adult female is illustrated, but drawings of first instars and an adult male also are included. This is a very important work on the fascinating interactions of the obligate symbiosis between ants and mealybugs. See http://www.schweizerbart.ed

Mealybugs of southern Asia: Williams 2004. Southdene Sdn. Bhd. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and The Natural History Museum, London, UK, 896 pp. This remarkable book is the most recent in a series of six book-length publications written by Douglas Williams since 1985 (others are Australian mealybugs, The scale insects of the tropical South Pacific Region in 3 volumes, and mealybugs of Central and South America). Each of these works is essential for anyone identifying mealybugs or scale insects from the treated area of the world. The copies of these volumes that reside in the library at Beltsville, Maryland are frayed and tattered from heavy use, and the southern Asia volume will be no exception. The work includes 353 species in 61 genera that are recorded from the 17 countries treated as southern Asia. In recent years there has been considerable trade with southern Asia, and many of the mealybug species that were intercepted in quarantine from this area were unknown to science or were misidentified. This caused serious problems since incorrect determinations could allow introduction of new invasive species in any country importing commodities from the area. This book solves this problem and is a must for scale-insect identifiers worldwide. See http://www.edi.co.uk/barlow for more information.

A systematic catalogue of the Diaspididae (Aspidiotinae, Comstockiellinae, Odonaspidinae): Ben-Dov and German. Intercept Ltd., Andover, UK, 1111 pp. Part of the series of catalogues that is being published as a result of the ScaleNet initiative. The volume includes information on 864 species placed in 118 genera.. See http://www.intercept.co.uk for more information.

RECENT LITERATURE

Compiled by Karen Veilleux

Karen continues to do a wonderful job on the ScaleNet literature. I don’t know how we could do it without her. It is a huge, challenging and tedious job and she is great at it.

The total number of reference records on ScaleNet now is 20,666 (that's 3,052 new records since the last Scale). Maybe some of you have been searching ScaleNet to retrieve a list of your own publications when needed. If you do, we would appreciate it if you would draw our attention to any inadvertent errors or omissions that you may notice. Thanks to those of you who have already taken the time to help us improve the database in this way. Please send new publications to me directly either to 710 Cedarview Dr., Blacksburg, VA 24060 USA or, electronically, to veilleux@vt.edu. I give priority to entering records into the database from actual papers received from the authors directly; other papers are entered as I learn of them.

Results

Abd-Rabou, S. 2003. The species of Coccophagus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), with description of one new species from Egypt. Acta Phytopathologica et Entomologica Hungarica 38(3/4): 351-355. [AbdRab2003]
Notes: The species of the aphelinid genus Coccophagus are primary parasitoids of soft scale insects belonging to the family Coccidae. These soft scale insects infect several economically important fruits or ornamental trees, and several species of Coccophagus have been used in the biological control of different scale insects. This paper reviews the Egyptian species of Coccophagus, namely C. bivittaus, C. ishii, C. lycimnia, C. qenai and C. scutellaris. C. qenai is described as a new species from Egypt. Each species is briefly diagnosed and the known information on host and distribution is given. A key is provided to these species.

Abd-Rabou, S. 2004. The role of augmentative releases of indigenous parasitoid Metaphycus lounsburyi (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in enhancing the biological control of Saissetia oleae (Homoptera: Coccidae) on olive in Egypt. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 37(3): 233-237. [AbdRab2004]
Notes: The Mediterranean black scale, Saissetia oleae is the most important pest of olive in Egypt. Indigenous parasitoid Metaphycus lounsburyi from different localities in Egypt, were manipulated, reared and mass-produced for classical biological control in Egypt, more than 193,130 parasitoids were released. Several releases were made between May 1999 and April 2001. Increases of the parasitism from 17.4 to 42.0 and from 6.4 to 19.2 during the first year (1999-2000) and the second year (2000-01), respectively, in the Northern Coast. This parasitoid became established in some of the release sites in El-Arish and Matruh Governorates.

Abd-Rabou, S. 2004a. Augmentative releases of indigenous parasitoids of the Mediterranean black scale Saissetia oleae (Oliver) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) on olive in Egypt. Shashpa 11(1): 51-56. [AbdRab2004a]
Notes: The Mediterranean black scale, Saissetia oleae is an important pest of olive in Egypt. Approximately 113,250 indigenous parasitoids of S. oleae from different localities in Egypt, were mass produced and released at three locations, from April 1999 to April 2000. Among all the indigenous parasitoids released, only Metaphycus bartletti established itself on S. oleae with parasitism rates of 83, 56, and 33% in the Northern Coast, Marsa Matruh and El-Arish, respectively.

Abd-Rabou, S. 2004b. Revision of the genus Aphytis (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) with descriptions of two new species from Egypt. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Entomologia Sinica 11(2): 149-164. [AbdRab2004b]
Notes: The Egyptian species of the aphelinid genus Aphytis Howard are reviewed. Aphytis azai Abd-Rabou and Aphytis matruhi Abd-Rabou are described as new species from Egypt. Each species is briefly diagnosed and known information on hosts and distributed is given. A. azai sp. nov. is similar to A. melinus but different in the measurement of antennal segments. A. matruhi sp. nov. differs from A. lepidosaphes by the relative length of propodeum, metanotum and scutellum. A key to the Egyptian species of Aphytis is provided. Hosts include Aonidiella aurantii and Lepidosaphes beckii.

Abd-Rabou, S. & Hayat, M. 2003. A synopsis and key to the Egyptian species of Aphytis Howard (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) parasitoids of diaspidid scale insects (Homoptera: Diaspididae). Acta Phytopathologica et Entomologica Hungarica 38(3/4): 357-363. [AbdRabHa2003]
Notes: The species of Aphytis have great potential in the biological control of diaspidid pests, and have been used for this purpose, mostly with successful results, throughout the world. This paper provides a key for the identification of the known species from Egypt, and gives a brief synopsis of the hosts and plants from which these parasitoids were collected. Some of the collected Aphytis species appear to be new for the Egyptian fauna, i.e. A. chilensis, A. hispanicus, A. paramaculicornis, A. vandenboschi, A. philippinensis, A. africanus, A. lingnanensis, A. phoenicis, A. aonidiae and A. libanicus.

Abdel-Moniem, A. 2003. Ecological studies on the red-striped sugarcane soft scale, Pulvinaria tenuivalvata (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in Upper Egypt. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 36(3/4): 161-172. [AbdelM2003]
Notes: The red-striped soft scale P. tenuivalvata is a pest attacking sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) recently recorded in Upper Egypt governorates. Sugarcane plantations in Upper Egypt were thoroughly inspected for 2 years from January 2001 until December 2002 to record infestation with P. tenuivalvata and its population density. Crops, plants and weeds growing near sugarcane fields were examined to determine the host range of this pest. Soft scale insect pests have become increasingly dangerous on sugarcane in Egypt. These insects occurred from 3 to 8 months on the infested hosts. The red-striped soft scale was active from May to December. Sugarcane, cogongrass (Imperata cylindrica) and Deccan grass (Echinochloa crus-galli) were the hosts, which harboured all insect stages. The infestation was restricted on the lower surface of the leaves and lower numbers were found on the upper surface. Damage to sugarcane included withering of the leaves and reduced yield, with reduction in the sucrose content of the juice. The growth rate of pest population infesting the sugarcane plants in 2001 increased gradually from June to September and decreased from October to December. The same trend was found for the growth rate of population in 2002. At high growth rates, it is advisable to use chemical control. The effect of weather factors on the population density of the P. tenuivalvata (the correlation between the total number of pests and temperature or relative humidity) was positive both years.

Ackacha, M.A., Polec-Pawlak, K. & Jarosz, M. 2003. Identification of anthraquinone coloring matters in natural red dyestuffs by high performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet and electrospray mass spectrometric detection. Journal of Separation Science 26(11): 1028-1034. [AckachPoJa2003]
Notes: Reversed phase liquid chromatography with diode array detection (DAD) and electrospray mass spectrometric (ESI MSD) methods were developed for the identification of anthraquinone color components of cochineal, lac dye, and madder - red natural dyestuffs. Electrospray mass spectrometry was found to be more suitable than diode array detection for such analysis because of its higher sensitivity (detection limits in the range 30-90 ng mL(-1)) and selectivity. The developed method permitted unequivocal identification of carminic acid and laccaic acid A as coloring matters in examined preparations of cochineal and lac dye, respectively.

Adomako, B. & Ackonor, J.B. 2003. Genetic analysis of attractiveness of Upper Amazon cocoa selections to homopterous insect pests. Tropical Science 43(1): 39-43. [AdomakAc2003]
Notes: The breeding value of 10 Upper Amazona cocoa selections was evaluated with respect to their attractiveness to 4 homopterous insect pests (Toxoptera aurantii, Tyro tessmannii, Planococcus citri and Planococcoides njalensis) in a study established in 1982 in Ghana. Ten female parents (Alph. B36, IMC 60, Pa 7, Pa 150, Pound 7, Pound 26, T17/524, T65/238, T60/887 and T85/799), each crossed with 3 male parents (ICS 6, P30 and Sca 9). The females came from one broad Upper Amazon population and can be classified into Nanay, Parinari, IMC and T types. ICS 6 is an Imperior College Selection of the Trinitario population; P30 is a west African Amelonado selection from the Lower Amazon Forastero population; and Sca 9 is a Scavina from the Upper Amazon population. There were significant differences in the attractiveness of the 10 Upper Amazon cocoa selections to the homopterous insect pests but none of the Nanay, Parinari, IMC or T types was consistently preferred when the female parents were considered. For the male parents, Sca 9 (Upper Amazon) was markedly more attractive to the insect pests than either ICS 6 (Trinitario) or P30 (Amelonado).

Afonso, A.P.S., Teixeira, I., Botton, M., Faria, J.L. & Loeck, A.E. 2004. [Control of the European peach scale Parthenolecanium persicae (Fabricius, 1776) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in vineyards.] Controle da cochonilha-parda Parthenolecanium persicae (Fabricius, 1776) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) na cultura da videira. (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Ciencia Rural 34(4): 985-989. [AfonsoTeBo2004]
Notes: The efficacy of dimethoate (Tiomet 400 EC at 100 ml/100 litre), fenitrothion (Sumithion 500 EC at 150 ml/100 litre), methidathion (Supracid 400 CE at 100 ml/100 litre), parathion-methyl (Folidol 600 EC at 100 ml/100 litre) and trichlorfon (Dipterex 500 SNAqC at 300 ml/100 litre) in 2001, and imidacloprid (Provado 200 SC at 30, 40 and 50 ml/100 litre), thiacloprid (Calypso 480 SC at 20, 30 and 40 ml/100 litre), thiamethoxam (Actara 250 WG at 20, 30 and 40 g/100 litre) and parathion-methyl (Folidol 600 CE at 100 ml/100 litre) in 2002 to control P. persicae in vineyards was investigated in a field experiment in Monte Belo do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The insecticides were sprayed using 800 litre of water/ha seeking third instar nymphs. Fenitrothion, methidathion, parathion-methyl, trichlorfon, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam were efficient for P. persicae control. Dimethoate and thiacloprid reduced pest population levels below 50%.

Aguiar-Menezes, E.L., Menezes, E.B., Cassino, P.C.R. & Soares, M.A. 2002. Passion fruit. 361-390 In: Peña, J., Sharp, J. & Wysoki, M. (Eds.), Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies and Control. CABI Publishing, . 448 pp. [AguiarMeCa2002]
Notes: Scales listed as pests include Aonidiella aurantii, Coccus hesperidum, Planococcus citri, P. pacificus and Selenaspidus articulatus. Description and life history, host plants, injury, natural enemies and chemical control are discussed. [Available on the internet at http://www.cabi-publishing.org/Bookshop/Readingroom/0851994342/0851994342Ch12.pdf on September 2003.]

Ahmad, K.F., Shah, W.H., Khalid, M. & Samina, J. 2004. Distribution of San Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Com.) [Diaspididae: Homoptera] on apple trees in Kashmir, Pakistan. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture 20(1): 135-142. [AhmadShKh2004]
Notes: Studies on the spatial and temporal distribution of San Jose scale (SJS), Q. perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus], on apple trees were carried out in three apple growing localities, i.e. Bagh, Muzaffarabad and Rawalakot, in Kashmir, Pakistan, during 1999. The SJS population, by examining a total of 1152 samples (i.e. 6 trees x 6 samples x 2 sites x 16 sampling time) per locality varied significantly (P<0.001) throughout the sampling period. It also significantly (P<0.001) varied on different cultivars of apple at different localities and sites. The apple orchard at Dheerkot (Bagh) locality was found severely infested compared to two other localities at Lamniyan (Muzaffarabad) and Rawalakot. The intra-tree variation was also evident at different localities. The data indicates that all the indigenous and introduced cultivars of apple were found infested by SJS with varying degrees of susceptibility. Among local cultivars, Banky was comparatively the least infested whereas the introduced cultivar (Star-Crimson) was found highly susceptible to SJS infestation. The pest population was significantly high at the upper half of the canopy compared to the lower half.

Aimanbetov, M.Z. & Azhbenov, V.K. 2004. [Plant protection in Kazakhstan.] (In Russian). Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 3: 18-21. [AimanbAz2004]
Notes: Significant infestations of Italian [Calliptamus italicus], Asian and Moroccan [Dociostaurus maroccanus] locusts, the worst for the last 50 years, occurred in 1999 in Kazakhstan. Crop losses, particularly those of cereals, and economic losses caused by locusts are outlined. Information is also included on several quarantine insect pests (including San Jose scale [Diaspidiotus perniciosus].

Aksit, T., Özsemerci, F. & Cakmak, I. 2003. [Studies on determination of harmful fauna in the fig orchards in Aydin province (Turkey).] Aydin ilinde incir agaclarinda saptanan zararli türler. (In Turkish; Summary In English). Turkiye Entomoloji Dergisi 27(3): 181-189. [AksitOzCa2003]
Notes: A survey was conducted in 12 districts in Aydin, Turkey during 1999-2002 to identify the pests infesting figs. A total of 36 pests species were recorded on the branches, shoots, leaves and fruits of the fig trees. Ceroplastes rusci, Carpophilus spp. and Drosophila spp. were found infesting figs at low altitudes, whereas Poecilimon sanctupauli and Otiorhynchus davricus were found infesting figs at high altitudes. Tetranychus urticae was found infesting figs at both altitudes.

Albuquerque, F.A. de, Pattaro, F.C., Borges, L.M., Lima, R.S. & Zabini, A.V. 2002. [Insects associated to Barbados cherry (Malpighia glabra L.) in the region of Maringá, PR.] Insetos associados à cultura da aceroleira (Malpighia glabra L.) na região de Maringá, Estado do Paraná. (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Acta Scientiarum 24(5): 1245-1249. [AlbuquPaBo2002]
Notes: Surveys to determine the occurrence of insect populations associated with Barbados cherry (M. glabra) were conducted from August 1997 to December 1998 in Maringá, Paraná, Brazil. Insects were collected every two weeks in branches, leaves and fruits of 20 Barbados cherry plants in a commercial orchard. The insects in the plants were collected manually, using an entomological net (a trap with attractive feed and cutting branches and leaves that were later observed under a stereomicroscope). The following insects were observed Nezara viridula, Piezodorus guildinii, Euschistus heros, Thyanta spp., Dysdercus ruficollis, D. peruvianus, Leptoglossus zonatus, L. gonagra, Enchenopa gracilis, Toxoptera citricidus, Saissetia coffeae, Saissetia oleae, Coccus viridis, Chrysomphalus ficus [Chrysomphalus aonidum], Selenaspidus articulatus, Orthezia praelonga, Mahanarva fimbriolata, M. posticata, Dilobopterus costalimai, Oncometopia facialis, Chrysopa sp., Polistes sp., Diabrotica speciosa, Cerotoma sp., Lagria villosa, Cycloneda sanguinea, Ceratitis capitata, Anastrepha fraterculus and Euxesta sp.

Aldama Aguilera, C. & Llanderal Cazares, C. 2003. [Cochineal: Comparison of production methods in cut cladodes.] (In Spanish). Agrociencia (Agrociencia) Texcoo 37(1): 11-19. [AldamaLl2003]
Notes: The growing demand of natural dyes has stimulated the research for production of cochineal (Dactylopius coccus). In this research four forms of arranging cactus pear pads, or cladodes, and four methods of infesting the pads to produce cochineal (Dactylopius coccus) were evaluated in a greenhouse. Efficiency was determined by counting the number of females per cladode and calculating the return-on-investment ratio. The most effective method was infestation with tulle nests on cladodes arranged vertically in a raffia net.

Allen, J.A. 2002. Forest pest management (insects). 301-303 In: Pimentel, D. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York. 929 pp. [Allen2002]
Notes: Maconellicoccus hirsutus is one of the forest pests discussed.

Alvarez, J.M. 2004. Trionymus haancheni McKenzie: A New Pest of Barley in Idaho. PMN: Plant Health Progress March 15, 2004. [Alvare2004]
Notes: [Published online: http://www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/pub/php/management/2004/barley/] A new insect pest of barley, Trionymus haancheni McKenzie, sometimes referred to as the Haanchen barley mealybug, was discovered for the first time in Idaho near Soda Springs during June 2003 in a commercial barley field. Brief description, illustrations, distribution in Idaho, damage, life cycle and chemical and biological control.

Anagnou, M.V., Kontodimas, D.C. & Kontodimas, D.C. 2003. Laboratory tests of the effect of Bacillus thuringiensis on grape berry moth Lobesia botrana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and on the pseudococcids' predator Nephus includens (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 26(8): 117-119. [AnagnoKoKo2003]
Notes: [Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group: Integrated Protection and Production in Viticulture held in Volos, Greece, 18-22 March, 2003, C. Lozzia (Ed.)] Some Bacillus thuringiensis-based produced were tested for their effects on grape berry moth Lobesia botrana and on the pseudococcids' predator Nephus includens, reared on Planococcus citri (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae).

Andaló, V., Moino Júnior, A., Santa-Cecília, L.V.C. & Souza, G.C. 2004. [Compatibility of Beauveria bassiana with chemical pesticides for the control of the coffee root mealybug Dysmicoccus texensis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)] (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Neotropical Entomology 33(4): 463-467. [AndaloMoSa2004]
Notes: [Original title: Compatibilidade de Beauveria bassiana com agrotóxicos visando o controle da cochonilha-da-raiz-do-cafeeiro Dysmicoccus texensis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae).] Several chemical substances are used to control insects, diseases and weeds, however many of these products are toxic to mankind and the animals, besides reducing the potential of pest control by predators, parasitoids and pathogens. Integrated control using selective chemical pesticides and entomopathogenic fungi is a viable strategy, however some of these products can negatively affect these microorganisms, reducing vegetative growth, viability and sporulation. The objectives of this work were to evaluate the effect of chemical pesticides used in the coffee crop on the entomopathogenic fungus B. bassiana (isolate UEL 114), for the control of the coffee root mealybug (D. texensis).

Angeles Martínez, M. 2003. New host of Antonina graminis (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Cuba. Revista de Protección Vegetal 18(1): 70 pp. [Angele2003]
Notes: A. graminis, previously isolated only on Echinochloa colonum, Tricholaena rosea, Panicum maximum and Digitaria sanguinalis, was collected from the stem base and internodes of Cynodon dactylon in a golf course in Matanzas, Cuba. C. dactylon constitutes a new host for A. graminis in Cuba.

Anis, S.B. & Hayat, M. 2002. A revision of the Indian species of Cheiloneurus Westwood (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Encyrtidae). Oriental Insects. New Delhi 36: 129-209. [AnisHa2002]
Notes: Saccharicoccus sacchari is one of the species mentioned.

Antonucci, C. 2003. Ceroplastes ceriferus: an exotic scale pest of ornamental woody plants. Foreste ed Alberi Oggi 9(6): 25-26. [Antonu2003]
Notes: A short illustrated description is given of the insect pest Ceroplastes ceriferus, found for the first time in Europe on laurel (Laurus nobilis) hedges near Verona, N. Italy, in 2001, and subsequently at two locations in Emilia Romagna and Lombardy, on greenhouse stock.

Aquino Perez, G. & Bárcenas, N.M. 2002. Reproductive biology and genetic (genetics?) of cochineal insect (Dactylopius spp.). CACTUSNET NEWSLETTER (FAO International Technical Cooperation on Cactus) No. 7: 6-10. [AquinoBa2002]
Notes: This paper discusses chromosomes in cochineal insects, heterochromatic chromosome set and sex determination, meiosis in cochineal insects, sex ratio and sex determination.

Aquino Perez, G., Bárcenas Ortega, N.M. & Valdez Carrasco, J. 2002. [Advances in the cytology of the prickly pear cochineal in vivo and in vitro and its reproductive biology.] Avances en la citología de la cochinilla del nopal en condiciones in vivo e in vitro y su biología reproductiva. (In Spanish). 3-25 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [AquinoBaVa2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This paper discusses the cellular organization and cytogenetics of Dactylopius coccus.

Arai, T. 2002. Attractiveness of sex pheromone of Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel (Homoptera : Pseudococcidae) to adult males in a citrus orchard. Applied Entomology and Zoology. Tokyo 37(1): 69-72. [Arai2002]
Notes: The attractiveness of the sex pheromone of Pseudococcus cryptus to adult males and natural enemies was tested in citrus orchards in 1999 and 2000. Males were caught by the pheromone trap during two periods in 1999 and three periods in 2000, whereas natural enemies were not attracted in either year. When seasonal degree-day accumulations reached 302 DD above a base of 10degreesC from the periods that males were trapped, the first instars emerged.

Arai, T. 2003. Development of the parasitoid Allotropa sp. and its effect on the suppression of the mealybug Pseudococcus cryptus. 426 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [Arai2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] Poster only.

Arai, T. & Mishiro, K. 2004. Development of Allotropa citri Muesebeck (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae) and Anagyrus subalbipes Ishii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) on Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Applied Entomology and Zoology. Tokyo 39(3): 505-510. [AraiMi2004]
Notes: Allotropa citri can parasitize all stages of Pseudococcus cryptus. Under experimental conditions, however, no difference was observed in the percentage parasitism between the first and the second instar hosts, while parasitism on the third instar and adult female hosts was lower than on the first and second instars. No difference was observed in the developmental duration of this parasitoid between the first and the second instar hosts. Therefore, the first and second instar nymphs of P. cryptus were considered suitable host stages for the parasitoid. The lower developmental threshold temperature and thermal constant of A. citri for the first and second instar nymphs of P. cryptus were 10.1 degrees C and 518.1 degree-days (DID), respectively. The lower developmental threshold temperatures and thermal constants of Anagyrus subalbipes females and males on P. cryptus adult females were 13.0 degrees C and 234.2 DD, and 12.1 degrees C and 245.5 DD, respectively. A. citri produced five generations and A. subalbipes seven generations in a year in the field of Nagasaki where the host produced four generations.

Arai, T., Sugie, H., Hiradate, S. Kuwahara, S., Itagaki, N. & Nakahata, T. 2003. Identification of a sex pheromone component of Pseudococcus cryptus. Journal of Chemical Ecology 29(10): 2213-2223. [AraiSuHi2003]
Notes: A sex pheromone component of Pseudococcus cryptus has been isolated and identified. The crude pheromone extract obtained by airborne collection was fractionated by liquid chromatography (LC) on Florisil, and further purified by high performance liquid chromatography and preparative Gas Chromatography (GC). The pheromone component was shown to be an ester, the alcohol part of which was identical to the known alcohol moiety of the pheromone of Planococcus citri. The chemical structure was determined to be 3-isopropenyl-2,2-dimethylcyclobutylmethyl 3-methyl-3-butenoate by MS and H NMR analyses. The absolute configuration of the pheromone was assigned as (1R,3R) by comparison of the retention time of the alcohol derived from the P. cryptus pheromone with those of the alcohol derived from P. citri pheromone, and a synthetic sample of alcohol enriched in the (1R,3R)-enantiomer, using a chiral GC stationary phase. The structure of the pheromone was confirmed by synthesis, and by bioassays in a glasshouse.

Araóz Palamino, P., Avila Uribe, M.M., Berdeja Martínez, B.M., Ascencio Almanza, D. & Villegas y De Gante, M. 2002. [Evaluation of cochineal (Dactylopius coccus Costa) in the town of Tezontepec, HGO.] Evaluación de la producción de grana cochinilla (Dactylopius coccus Costa) en villa de Tezontepec, HGO. (In Spanish). 69-70 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [AraozPAvBe2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This research attempts to develop a system to improve cultivation and marketing of D. coccus for dye production in this region.

Armijos, F., Flores, R. & Silva, D. 2003. [Mealybugs, vectors of the banana streak virus in Ecuador.] Los piojos harinosos (cochinillas) vectores del virus del estriado del banano (BSU) en Ecuador. (In Spanish). Boletín Divulgación Técnica No. 293: 1-8. [ArmijoFlSi2003]
Notes: Symptoms, vectors, transmission, life cycle, illustrations and control of Dysmicoccus sp. (similar to D. bispinosus and Pseudococcus elisae are provided.

Arnold, C. & Sengonca, C. 2003. [Possibilities of biological control of the horse chestnut scale insect, Pulvinaria regalis Canard (Homoptera: Coccidae), on ornamental trees by releasing its natural enemies.] Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz 110(6): 591-601. [ArnoldSe2003]
Notes: The aim of this study was to investigate possibilities of biological control of the horse chestnut scale insect, Pulvinaria regalis Canard (Homoptera: Coccidae), on ornamental trees by releasing its natural enemies. For this purpose, single releases of Exochomus quadripustulatus larvae and Coccophagus semicircularis as well as Microterys flavus adult females and combined release of E. quadripustulatus as well as C. semicircularis were carried out on lime trees in the centre of Duisburg in 1999 and 2000, respectively. All the three beneficials were reared under defined climatic conditions. The release of E. quadripustulatus larvae lead to a significant reduction in numbers of P. regalis nymphs measured per m(2) leaf area. The release of 20 E. quadripustulatus larvae resulted in 2644.3 P. regalis nymphs per m(2) while 30 E. quadripustulatus larvae resulted in 2250.3 nymphs per m(2). The number of pests was significantly higher in the control treatment with 4298.3 nymphs per m(2). The number of parasitized P. regalis nymphs was significantly higher in the C. semicircularis female-released plots where it was 9.5% with 20 and 12.9% with 30 C. semicircularis released females. A combined release of 20 E. quadripustulatus larvae in early summer and 20 C. semicircularis females in autumn resulted in a reduction of 1985.8 (46.2%) P. regalis nymphs per m(2) leaf area and an increase in numbers of parasitized nymphs to 610.4 (14.2%) per m(2) leaf area compared with the control. After two repetitive releases of M. flavus females in spring 2000, a mean parasitization of 53.9 (19.6%) of P. regalis females per tree was observed. M. flavus females deposited 1-7 eggs into the adult scale insects, depending on their respective body size. The number of eggs laid by parasitized P. regalis females was reduced to a mean of 217.9 eggs per female as compared to 1272.4 eggs laid per unparasitized females.

Arnold, C., Hamacher, J. & Nahif, A.A. 2004. Occurrence of microsporidia, endosymbionts and viruses in the horse chestnut scale Pulvinaria regalis Canard (Homoptera : Coccidae). Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz 111(2): 173-182. [ArnoldHaNa2004]
Notes: The present study aimed to investigate the occurrence of microsporidia, endosymbionts and viruses in the Horse Chestnut Scale Pulvinaria regalis Canard (Homoptera: Coccidae), an introduced pest insect of more than 65 different plant species. Microsporidia could not be detected either in eggs or in three nymphal stages or in the adult scales. The number of endosymbiotic organisms increased continuously during the development of P. regalis. Mycetocytes appeared in the first nymphal stage for the first time. Their number and size increase considerably within the following developmental stages, merging into a mycetome in the adult scales. Two virus-like particles (VLP) were detected by electron microscopy (TEM). One VLP of 30 nm diameter was of isometric shape and had no outer or inner structures. The other VLP was 65 to 70 nm in diameter, had a hexagonal outline and a core of 4560 nm in diameter. The classification of the VLPs is discussed.

Asplanato, G. & Garcia Mari, F. 2002. [Parasitism of the California red scale Aonidiella aurantii (Homoptera: Diaspididae) in the southern citrus zone of Uruguay.] (In Spanish; Summary In English). Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 28(1): 5-20. [AsplanGa2002]
Notes: [Original title: Parasitismo de la cochinilla roja californiana Aonidiella aurantii (Homoptera: Diaspididae) en la zona citrícola sur de Uruguay.] Observations were made during two seasons (1995-96 and 1996-97) in two Navel orange orchards to determine the identity and abundance of parasitoids of the California red scale Aonidiella aurantii and to determine factors that influence parasitism levels. The ectoparasitoids Aphytis melinus, A. lingnanensis and A. chrysomphali, and the endoparasitoids Encarsia perniciosi and E. citrina were identified in traps and on their hosts. The relative abundance of the three ectoparasitoid species fluctuated depending on the year and locality, whereas E. perniciosi was the predominant species among the endoparasitoids. The annual mean percentage of ectoparasitism ranged from 8 to 13%, and the endoparasitism from 1 to 9%. The highest parasitism by Aphytis was observed on leaves, whereas Encarsia parasitized more scales placed on the wood. The percentage of ectoparasitism was minimum in winter and the percentage of endoparasitism reached its maximum in winter and spring. The adult trap catches were usually highest for Aphytis in autumn, whereas for Encarsia tended to be higher in summer rather than in autumn. Aphytis parasitized almost exclusively third stage virgin females and second stage males, whereas Encarsia preferred the two initial developing stages L1 and L2. The differences between ecto- and endoparasitoids in tree localization, season of year and host stage preferred suggest a complementary role of the two groups of parasitoids.

Aung, L.H., Leesch, J.G. & Jenner, J.F. 2004. Methyl iodide and forced aeration on the post-harvest quality of lemons. Postharvest Biology and Technology 33(1): 45-50. [AungLeJe2004]
Notes: Methyl iodide (MI) fumigation to control California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) at dosages of 24, 28, and 32 g/m3 for 2 h combined with 2- and 24-h forced aeration using 3.5 l of air per min at 21EC immediately after fumigation was tested on early-, mid- and, late-season lemons [Citrus limon (L.) Burm. F] from the coastal and desert regions. The MI treatment lowered fruit quality due to moderate to severe rind injury with increasing MI dosage. The degree of lemon phytotoxicity was influenced by season of harvest. Early season lemons of both coastal (cooler) and desert (warmer) regions sustained less fruit phytotoxicity than mid- and late-season lemons. Forced aeration of 24-h immediately after the MI treatment dramatically reduced fruit phytotoxicity regardless of seasonal and climatic factors. Based upon the results of MI and on the known response of California red scale to this fumigant, we propose that a MI dosage of 26 g/m3 for 2 h combined with 24-h forced aeration post-fumigation could provide an effective quarantine treatment for lemon.

Awadallah, K.T., Ammar, E.D., Tawafik, M.F.S. & Attia, A.R. 2002. Notes on the new parasitoid species, Neoplatycerus nr. palestinensis (Rivnay) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) on Planococcus ficus (Signoret) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Biological Pest Control 12(1): 83. [AwadalAmTa2002]
Notes: Ecological and biological studies on the parasitoids associated with the vine mealybug Planococcus ficus, infesting grapes in Egypt were conducted during 1998/99 and 1999/2000. Clausenia josefi, Leptomastix dactylopii and Leptomastidea abnormis [Leptomastidea abnormis] were found during the whole period of the study, while Neoplatycerus nr. palestinensis [Neoplatycerus palestinensis] was found only in April 2000. This is thought to be the first record of Neoplatycerus nr. palestinensis in Egypt. Rearing and biological studies on Neoplatycerus nr. palestinensis showed that a temperature of 30 deg C and 50-55% relative humidity were the most suitable conditions for both its development and reproduction. The second and third nymphal instars, and adult female were the most suitable stages for the parasitoid for producing highest number of progenies. Neoplatycerus nr. palestinensis is an arrhenotokous species. The unfertilized eggs developed into males only, while an average of 133.8 offspring were counted per fertilized female.

Ayón, M., Vigueras G., A.L., Portillo, L. & Nieto S., C. 2002. [Color permancence in wool died with cochineal.] Permanencia de color en lana teñido con grana cochinilla. (In Spanish). 109-111 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [AyonViPo2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] Techniques are suggested to increase permanence of this dye.

Azab, S.G., Sadek, M.M. & Khalil, Z.H. 2003. Light and scanning electron microscopic studies on the various stages of the scale insect Pulvenaria (Pulvinaria?) tenuivalvata (Hemiptera, Coccidae), attacking sugarcane. TL3.3 In: Mahmoud, M.R., Baron, P. & Bayoumi, M.R. (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on 'Arab Region and Africa in the World Sugar Context', Aswan, Egypt, 9-12 March 2003. International Sugar Organization, London. unpaginated. [AzabSaKh2003]
Notes: We examined the life cycle of the scale insect Pulvinaria tenuivalvata in the laboratory and investigated its morphology using light microscope and scanning electron microscope. The insect was reared in the laboratory on young sugarcane shoots. We found that during the period lasting from July to October, the insect completes its life cycle in about 45 days, whereas in the period from November to March the growth is much slower and the complete life cycle takes about 65 days. Each adult female produces about 250 eggs in average. The eggs are 150 micro m wide and 340 micro m long. They hatch parthenogenetically, giving rise to highly mobile nymphs. Promptly after hatching, the nymphs search a suitable place on the plant to settle and start feeding. Two stylet-like structures are present among the other components of the mouth parts of the feeding nymphs. Combined together, the two structures form a 165 micro m long proboscis. Antennae bear a considerable number of olfactory sensilla of the trichoid and basiconical types. As the nymph continues feeding, it grows in its place to adulthood. Adults measure an average of 5 mm in length, although some individuals may reach the length of 8 mm. The adult has a highly sclerotized convex dorsal surface, whereas the ventral surface is almost flat, fitting tightly to the substratum. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Babitha, S., Sandhya, C. & Pandey, A. 2003. Natural food colourants. Applied Botany Abstracts 23(4): 258-266. [BabithSaPa2003]
Notes: This paper discusses some factors that influence the acceptability of colour in a given food (processing and cultural, geographical and sociological aspects of the population), the regulations on "colour additives", and sources of natural food colourants (annatto, betalains, crocetin, gardenia blue, lutein, cochineal, and pigment-producing bacteria, fungi, yeasts and algae).

Babu, B.S., Varaprasad, K.S. & Anitha, K. (Eds.) 2002. Resources management in plant protection during twenty first century, Hyderabad, India, 14-15 November 2002. Volume II. Plant Protection Association of India, Hyderabad, India. 201 pp. [BabuVaAn2002]
Notes: These proceedings contain 46 papers focusing on the importance of resource management, including the exploitation of biodiversity and the utilization of natural plant products and natural enemies, in the integrated control of plant pests and diseases. A paper containing information on scales is: Influence of time of planting on the incidence of sugarcane scale insect Melanaspis glomerata G. (Krishnamooorthy & Mahadevan).

Baghel, C.L. 2002. Comparative study of copulatory complex of typical diaspidis (Coccoidea: Homoptera). Flora and Fauna (Jhansi) 8(1): 33-34. [Baghel2002]
Notes: A detailed morphological study on the structure of copulatory complex of Parlatoria crypta and Aspidiotus tamarindi [Octaspidiotus tamarindi] was carried out. In P. crypta, the average length of the stylus was approx equal to 0.2 (0.19-0.23) mm and the width across the middle of the stylus is approx equal to 0.019 (0.018-0.021) mm. The distal less than half genital sheath bears 4 pairs of sensilla. The length of aedeagus is approx equal to 0.18 (0.16-0.20) mm and the width is 0.015 (0.014-0.016) mm across the middle of the aedeagus. The penis or aedeagus also bears 3 pairs of sensilla on the less than half distal portion. The genital base bears 2 pairs of long setae. The aedeagus also has 3 pairs of small setae whose size increase from the anterior to the posterior part. In A. tamarindi, the length of stylus is approx equal to 0.22 (0.20-0.025) mm and the width across the middle of the stylus is 0.023 (0.020-0.024) mm. The posterior half of the stylus has 5 pairs of sensilla. The length of aedeagus is approx equal to 0.21 (0.1900.23) mm and the width is approx equal to 0.20 (0.19-0.23) mm across the middle of the aedeagus. The aedeagus is also provided with 4 pairs of sensilla. The genital base sheath has 2 pairs of long setae which are longer than the setae of the penis base. All these setae are equal in size. On both species, the anus is situated on the dorsal surface of the base. The basal ridge on the penial sheath is well-developed present on the ventral side.

Bahuguna, R. & Shiva, M.P. 2002. Lac: a review on present status and its prospects. International Journal of Forest Usufructs Management 3(1/2): 63-70. [BahuguSh2002]
Notes: This paper discusses the current status of lac production in India. A description of the lac insect Laccifer lacca [Kerria lacca] is presented. The 3 major host plants (Butea monosperma, Schleichera oleosa and Ziziphus mauritiana) of the lac insect, as well as other multipurpose tree species (Albizia lucida, Grewia serrulata, Leea crispa, Ougeinia oojeinensis [Desmodium oojeinense], Shorea talura [S. roxburghii] and Z. xylophora) where the lac insect grows, are also described. Other topics discussed include: the cultivation, yield, production, uses and marketing of lac in India; and the export of lac from India to other countries.

Balaram Tolat, P. 2002. History of cochineal in India. 57-58 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [Balara2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This review discusses dyes historically made from Coccus ilicis, C. lacca, C. maniparus and C. polonicus.

Balykina, E.B., Yagodinskaya, L.P. & Duchak, A.N. 2003. [Against apple pests.] (In Russian). Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 11: 31-32. [BalykiYaDu2003]
Notes: Occurrence is reported of the most important pests of apple in Crimea, the Ukraine, such as Laspeyresia pomonella [Cydia pomonella], Quadraspidiotus perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus], Panonychus ulmi and Tetranychus viennensis [Amphitetranychus viennensis]. Field trials were conducted in 2001 with Dimilin [diflubenzuron], Match [cyanazine] and Insegar [fenoxycarb] used for control of C. pomonella. Preparation 30 [of unstated composition], Fufanon [of unstated composition], Mospilan [acetamiprid], Actaru [of unstated composition] and Basudin [diazinon] were tested against D. perniciosus. Omait [of unstated composition] was successfully tested against P. ulmi and A. viennensis.

Bani, G., Divassa, S.M., Nzemba, M.D. & Magema, J.M. 2003. [The Cassava brown root scale insect, Stictococcus vayssierei Richard, new for Congo-Brazzaville (on Manihot esculenta Crantz) (Hem. Stictococcidae).] Bulletin de la Société Entomologique de France 108(5): 529-530. [BaniDiNz2003]
Notes: [Original title: Presence au Congo-Brazzaville de Stictococcus vayssierei Richard, ravageur du manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz) (Hem., Stictococcidae).]

Baraishchuk, G.V. & Gaivas, A.A. 2004. Physokermes hemicryphus. Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 3: 55 pp. [BaraisGa2004]
Notes: Investigations carried out in conifer plantations in the town of Omsk, Siberia, Russia, in 2002 revealed damage of Siberian spruce [Picea obovata] caused by P. hemicryphus. This is the first record of damage to P. hemicryphus in this region. Information is included on morphology of male and female insects, life cycle and damage to trees.

Baranowska, I., Zydron, M. & Szczepanik, K. 2004. TLC in the analysis of food additives. Journal of Plant Chromatography 17(1): 54-57. [BaranoZySz2004]
Notes: TLC methods have been developed for analysis of food pigment sweeteners, and a preservative. Patent blue V, quinoline yellow: brilliant blue FCF, tartrazine, azorubine, ponceau 4R, curcumine, indigo carmine, cochineal, methyl violet, mixed carotenes, plain caramel, erythrosine B, and orange yellow S were separated on silica gel G with isopropanol-(12.5%) aqueous ammonia, 10 + 2 (v/v), as mobile phase. Aspartame, acesulfame K, sodium cyclamine, and benzoic acid were separated on thin layers of silica gel G with ethanol-isopropanol-(12.5%) aqueous ammonia, 10 + 40 + 1 (v/v), as mobile phase. These chromatographic systems were applied to the analysis of food additives in 23 sparkling and non-sparkling drinks.

Barlow, N.D. & Goldson, S.L. 2002. Alien invertebrates in New Zealand. 195-216 In: Pimentel, D., Biological Invasions: Economic and Environmental Costs of Alien Plant, Animal, and Microbe Species. CRC Press, Boca Raton et al.. 369 pp. [BarlowGo2002]
Notes: Invasive species discussed include Ultracoelostoma simile and U. britanni.

Beattie, G.A.C., Clift, A.D., Parkes, R.A. & Jiang, L. 2002. Impacts of spray volume and horticultural mineral oil concentration on control of pink wax scale and red scale in citrus orchards. 582-591 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [BeattiClPa2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Scale species include Aonidiella aurantii, Ceroplastes rubens and C. sinensis.

Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.) 2002. Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [BeattiWaSt2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] 21 papers include information on scales.

Becerra, V.C., Miano, J.L. & Gonzalez Maldonado, D. 2002. [Black scale of olive: control with pesticides.] Cochinilla negra del olivo: Control mediante insecticidas. (In Spanish). Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias. Argentina 34(2): 7-10. [BecerrMiGo2002]
Notes: Dimethoate, ethion, methidathion and chlorpyrifos were used to control black scale H (Saissetia oleae) on olives in Argentina. The mortality percentages were calculated using a given mathematical formula.

Beglaryan, E.A. 2003. Ceroplastes japonicus Green. Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 1: 30 pp.. [Beglar2003]
Notes: First discovery of the dangerous quarantine pest on Grecian laurel [Laurus nobilis] in May 2001 is reported from Armenia. Further investigations revealed spread of C. japonicus on various fruit and ornamental plants.

Ben-Dov, Y. 2004. Nomenclature and taxonomy of Ortonia Signoret, 1876, and Llaveia Signoret, 1876 (Hemiptera, Coccoidea, Margarodidae). (In English; Summary In French). Bulletin de la Societe Entomologique de France 109(4): 383-386. [BenDov2004]
Notes: The identity of two species of margarodid scale insects, Ortonia bouvari and O. uhleri, and the genus Ortonia, all described by Signoret in 1876, is established. Lectotypes are designated. The name Ortonia Signoret, junior homonym, is replaced by Ecuadortona new name. Ortonia bouvari Signoret is newly synonymized with Llaveia axin (Llave). Taxonomic features of L. axin, type species of Llaveia and of Ortonia uhleri Signoret, type species of Ecuadortonia are discussed.

Ben-Dov, Y. & German, V. 2003. A Systematic Catalogue of the Diaspididae (Armoured Scale Insects) of the World, Subfamilies Aspidiotinae, Comstockiellinae and Odonaspidinae. Intercept, Andover, Hants, U.K.. 1112 pp. [BenDovGe2003]
Notes: The armoured scale insects comprise the largest family, Diaspididae, in the superfamily Coccoidea. Several species of armoured scale insects, for example the California red scale and the pernicious scale, are of great economic importance as they are destructive pests to crops such as cassava, citrus, avocado, sugarcane, pineapple, as well as various forest trees and ornamentals. This catalogue provides up-to-date data on three subfamilies, namely Aspidiotinae, Comstockiellinae and Odonaspidinae, covering 864 species placed in 118 genera, which have been described in the family since Linnaeus (1758), until December 2002, the cut-off date. This book is a synthesis and catalogue of all of the information published on these genera and species worldwide up to December 2002, and gives information on their correct scientific name, taxonomy, common names, synonyms, host plants, geographical distribution, natural enemies, biology, economic importance, and published references. This catalogue will be of major importance to scale insect students, crop protection specialists, quarantine officers and any entomologist who requires information about armoured scale insects, either for research or for control projects.

Ben-Dov, Y. & Skutelsky, Y. 2003. [Vryburgia amarylidis (Bouché) (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) in Israel.] (In Hebrew; Summary In English). Olam Pore'akh (Flower Board of Israel) No. 28: 60. [BenDovSk2003]
Notes: The mealybug, Vryburgia amarylidis (Bouché) (Hemiptera: Coccoidea Pseudococcidae) was found on Amaryllis (Amaryllidaceae) in 2002-2003 for the first time in Israel. Infested plants were damaged, resulting in reduced growth and chlorosis of leaves.

Ben-Dov, Y. & Williams, D.J. 2003. The identity of Aspidiotus guianensis Lindinger, 1957 (Hem., Coccoidea, Diaspididae). Bulletin de la Societe Entomologique de France 108(2): 166-167. [BenDovWi2003]
Notes: In a work discussing some miscellaneous Coccoidea, Newstead (1917) described some specimens under the name Aspidiotus camelliae Signoret with malformed squamae (now known as plates) from British Guiana (Guyana). Newstead recorded these specimens from Turkey, on Erythraspis glauca, 17IX.1915 (G.L. Bodkin). There is no such plant genus Erythraspis and Newstead must have mistaken the plant for Erythrina glauca (Leguminosae), often used as a shade tree in cocoa plantations. Newstead thought that the malformed appearance of the plates was due to disease rather than to fungi or parasites. Lindinger (1957) referred to Newstead's record as "A. [Aspidiotus] guianensis nom. nov.". This reference to Newstead's illustration and description validates Lindinger's name. There are 5 of Newstead's orginial slides, containing altogether 29 adult female and 4 second instar females, in the Natural History Museum, London. These specimens, therefore, must be regarded as syntypes of Aspidiotus guianensis Lindinger. The plates in many of these specimens appear to be normal. Furthermore, a critical study shows that the species is actually the same as Aspidiotus diffinis Newstead, described earlier by Newstead (1893: 281) from British Guiana (Guyana) and currently known as Hemiberlesia diffinis (Newstead). This species has been illustrated and redescribed in detail by Miller and Davidson (1998). The name Aspidiotus guianensis Lindinger, is here synonymized with Hemiberlesia diffinis (Newstead), syn. n. Some of Newstead's slides discussed here, also contain a few specimens of the species described in Newstead (1917) as Aspidiotus (Chrysomphalus) erythraspidis (Newstead) and again Newstead listed the host plant in error as Erythraspis glauca on which he based the name of the armoured scale. Among Newstead's original slides of Aspidiotus (Chrysomphalus) erythraspidis, there is also one specimen of A. guianensis Lindinger.

Ben-Dov, Y., Stathas, G.J. & Malliarou, J.S. 2003. The pyriform scale, Protopulvinaria pyriformis (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in Greece. (In Greek; Summary In English). Agrotiki Ereyna 26(2): 89-91. [BenDovStMa2003]
Notes: Protopulvinaria pyriformis (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) is recorded here, for the first time in Greece, found on laurel trees (Laurus nobilis L.) in the city of Kalamata. Since it is considered a potential pest to agricultural crops in Greece, basic information is presented on its morphology, host plants, geographical distribution and economic importance. Preliminary observations (during 15 - 20 October 2003) on L. nobilis in Kalamata (Greece), showed that the populations consisted of about 80% ovipositing females, 15% crawlers and 5% settled first instar nymphs.

Benfatto, D., Lo Giudice, V., Conti, F. & Tumminelli, R. 2002. Spray oil evolution in Italian citrus groves. 419-426 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [BenfatLoCo2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Species discussed include Aonidiella aurantii.

Benziane, T., Abbassi, M. & Bihi, T. 2003. [Evaluation of two IPM methods to control main pests in citrus orchards.] Evaluation de deux méthodes de lutte intégrée contre les ravageurs en vergers d'agrumes. (In French; Summary In English). Journal of Applied Entomology 127(1): 51-63. [BenziaAbBi3000]
Notes: This study aims to consolidate the acquired knowledge regarding integrated pest management (IPM) against the main pests in citrus orchards. One purpose of our work has been the evaluation of two IPM methods: the first one, has been tested in Morocco for three years in areas not exceeding 1.2 ha; the second one originating from Australia, is presently recommended by the Plant Protection Authorities in Morocco. Our results show that the Moroccan method is more efficient in monitoring aphids and citrus leaf miner (CLM) population and leads to the same results while reducing by half the number of the samples inspected. These two methods gave the same results for monitoring population dynamics of California red scale and Mediterranean fruit fly but, fruit infestation at harvest was higher with the Australian method than the method developed locally (70.95% against 74.75 for California red scale and 2.35 against 3.35 for Mediterranean fruit fly).

Benziane, T., Abbassi, M. & Sekkat, A. 2002. [Utilization of auxiliaries and cultural practices as an alternative means of protection against pests in citrus orchards.] (In French; Summary In English). 157-166 In: [Sixth International Conference on Pests in Agriculture. Vol. 1.] Sixième Conférence Internationale sur les Ravageurs en Agriculture. Tome 1.] AGRO, Montpellier, France. 350 pp. [BenziaAbSe2002]
Notes: [Original title: Utilisation des auxiliaires et des pratiques culturales comme moyens alternatifs de protection contre les ravageurs en verger d'agrumes. Conference held 4-6 December 2002 in Montpellier, France.] In order to reduce the negative impact of pesticides in the agrosystem, alternative methods such as the release of auxiliaries and the use of adapted cultural practices, were introduced in an integrated strategy of pest management in citrus orchards. Aonidiella aurantii is among the pests found.

Bernardo, U. & Viggiani, G. 2002. Effects of Oikos (a. i. Azadirachtin A) on the vedalia ladybeetle Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 25(11): 81-88. [BernarVi2002]
Notes: [Conference: IOBC/WPRS Working Group 'Pesticides and Beneficial Organisms'. Proceedings of the meeting at San Michele All'Adige, Vogt, H. & Heimbach, U. (Eds.), Trento, Italy, 3-6 October, 2001. Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP), Dijon, France.] The effects of Oikos (a.i. Azadirachtin A) on the vedalia ladybeetle Rodolia cardinalis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) were studied. Laboratory trials were carried out on larvae and adults of the predator fed with Oikos- and water-treated egg masses of the cottony cushion scale Icerya purchasi (Homoptera: Margarodidae). Oikos was tested at the recommended rate per ha (1500 ml) x 0.4, which corresponds to the predicted environmental concentration. The ingestion effect was evaluated on the larvae taking into account mortality, presence or absence of deformations and duration of pre-imaginal development. In addition, longevity, egg fertility and progeny were studied on the latter. The ingestion effect was evaluated on adults of R. cardinalis not derived from treated young stages, considering longevity, egg deposition and egg hatchability. In the field trial conducted in Portici, Italy, 5 plants of Pittosporum tobira, naturally infested with Icerya purchasi and with presence of R. cardinalis, were treated with Oikos at 150 ml/hl in water at pH 5.5 until dripping off and other 5 plants in the same conditions were treated with water at pH 5.5. Before the treatment, the larvae of R. cardinalis were counted and pupae and adults removed. At 3-day intervals, the newly formed pupae were collected and the number of derived adults and their state were recorded. Adults obtained from the larvae fed on Oikos-treated plants were paired; in the absence of functional males, individuals obtained from the control were used. Both laboratory and field trials have shown detrimental effects of Oikos on pupal mortality, adult deformation, egg deposition and egg hatchability.

Besheit, S.Y., Abaziad, A.A., Gomaa, A.M.E.S. & El Hamd, A.S.A. 2002. The influence of the infestation by the soft scale insect, Pulvinara tenuivalvata (Newstead), Coccidae, Homoptera, on sugarcane stalk weight, juice quality and sugar yield in upper Egypt. Assiut Journal of Agricultural Sciences 33(4): 17-28. [BesheiAbGo2002]
Notes: The effects of Pulvinaria tenuivalvata [Pulvinaria tenuivalvata] infestation on the yield and quality of plant cane, first-year ratoon, and second-year ratoon crops of sugarcane cv. G.T. 54/9 were studied in El-Ashei, Egypt, in 1998, 1999, and 2000. The reduction in stalk weight, juice extraction percentage, brix (total soluble solid), cane and juice sugar percentage, and juice purity percentage, and sugar yield was more pronounced under severe infestation than under light or moderate infestation. Reducing sugar and glucose ratio, however, increased with the increase in infestation level. Plant cane recorded the highest average stalk weight and juice extraction percentage. First ratoon crops registered the highest brix percentage, sugar yield, and purity percentage, and the lowest reducing sugar content and glucose ratio.

Bhagat, K.C. 2004. Mango mealy bug, Drosicha mangiferae (Green) (Margarodidae: Hemiptera) on Ashwagandha - a medicinal plant. Insect Environment 10(1): 14 pp. [Bhagat2004]
Notes: A preliminary study conducted during 2003 in Gurah Bramana, Kotgarhi, Rakh and Tanda, Jammu and Kashmir, India, on Ashwagandha (Wathonia somnifera [Withania somnifera]) revealed the infestation of mango mealy bug, Drosicha mangiferae on the foliage. An unusual mango mealy bug infestation was observed from February to May 2003 at all locations. However, severe infestation was noted in farmers' field in Rakh near Akhnoor. The pinkish nymphs and female adults were found sucking sap from the twigs, leaf stock and also along the midrib. The number of nymphs recorded in the second fortnight of March varied between 4 and 157 per 10 cm shoot. The highest number of nymphs recorded on the entire individual shoot was 487 and the infestation was mainly concentrated on the terminal part of the shoot. The grubs of Suminus renardi [Sumnius vestita] and two unidentified spider species were found preying upon the mealy bug nymphs infesting the host plant. Adults of Cryptochaetum [Cryptochetum] sp. also recovered from the parasitized nymphs of D. mangiferae.

Bhat, A.I., Devasahayam, S., Sarma, Y.R. & Pant, R.P. 2003. Association of a badnavirus in black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) transmitted by mealybug (Ferrisia virgata) in India. Current Science (India) 84(12): 1547-1550. [BhatDeSa2003]
Notes: The association of a badnavirus with disease-affected black pepper leaf samples collected from Kozhikode (Calicut) and Wyanad districts of Kerala was established on the basis of symptomatology, vector transmission, electron microscopy and serology. The virus induces vein clearing, chlorotic flecks, chlorotic mottling along veins and characteristic curling of leaves leading to reduced vigour and yield. The virus was transmitted from diseased to healthy black pepper plants by grafting and mealybug (Ferrisia virgata). The virus could also be transmitted by mechanical means with difficulty to black pepper, but not to other hosts tested. The virus showed positive serological relationship with Banana streak virus (BSV) and Sugar-cane bacilliform virus (ScBV) in direct antigen-coated enzyme-linked immunoassay (DAC-ELISA) using polyclonal antisera. The exact taxonomic identity of the virus remains to be determined.

Bhattacharya, A., Gupta, T.K. & Chatterjee, N.B. 2002. Host preference in scale insects. Insect and Environment 8(3): 118-119. [BhattaGuCh2002]
Notes: A survey was conducted in Kolkata [Calcutta], India, from 1995 to 2000 to study the host preference of scale insects. Lopholeucaspis excoecariae scale insects were observed on 4 hosts, namely Hibiscus mutabilis, Rosa sp., Murrya [Murraya] sp., and Ptrichosperma [Ptychosperma] sp. L. excoecariae was abundant in June on Hibiscus sp. and on Murrya sp., in July on Ptrichosperma sp., and in September on Rosa sp. The highest L. excoecariae population was observed on P. macarthurii, while the lowest population was observed on Rosa sp.

Bhattacharya, A., Mishra, Y.D., Sushil, S.N., Jaiswal, A.K. & Kumar, K.K. 2003. Relative efficacy of some Trichogramma spp. for management of lepidopteran predators of lac insect, Kerria lacca (Kerr) under field conditions. 301-303 In: Tandon, P.L., Ballal, C.R., Jalali, S.K. & Rabindra, R.J. (Eds.), Biological Control of Lepidopteran Pests. Proceedings of the Symposium of Biological Control of Lepidopteran Pests, July 17-18, 2002, Bangalore, India Society for Biocontrol Advancement, Bangalore, India. iii + 354 pp. [BhattaMiSu2003]
Notes: A study was undertaken in Bihar, India, to evaluate the performance of three egg parasitoids, Trichogramma brasiliense, T. chilonis and T. pretiosum (at 100000, 150000 and 200000 per ha), against two lepidopteran predators (Eublemma amabilis and Pseudohypatopa pulverea) of K. lacca raised on the bushy lac host plant bhalia (Flemingia macrophylla). The results not only indicate significant suppression in predator population under various treatments over the control, but also showed the dose-dependent effect of parasitoid release. The highest suppression was recorded in T. brasiliense at 150000 and 200000 per ha (69.90 and 69.81%, respectively), which was significantly higher than the 100000 per ha rate of T. brasiliense release (47.17%). Suppression was 39.62% in T. pretiosum at 100000 per ha. This reduction in predator population positively affected the yield of lac sticks, which was accordingly reflected in the significant increase of yield ratio.

Binazzi, A., Pennacchio, F. & Francardi, V. 2002. The use of sex pheromones of Matsucoccus species (Homoptera Margarodidae) for monitoring and mass trapping of M. feytaudi Ducasse and for kairomonal attraction of its natural enemies in Italy. (In English; Summary In Italian). Redia 85: 155-171. [BinazzPeFr2002]
Notes: In 1998, the EU Project "PHOCUS" was started in order to control the most important pernicious scales in the Mediterranean area by using a new ecological pest management. In the control of the maritime pine bast scale Matsucoccus feytaudi, three Research Centres were involved including those in France, Portugal and Italy. In Italy, the cited project was carried out by the Forest Entomology Section of ISZA of Florence. Maritime pine stands infested by M. feytaudi were chosen in eastern Liguria near Sestri Levante (Genoa). Three experiments, i.e., monitoring, mass trapping and kairomonal attraction, using the sex pheromone-kairomones, gave good results in the discovery of early infested stands before pines start to decay, as well in the catching of high numbers of males, and the attraction and aggregation of a high numbers of native insect predators in the infested areas. In the investigated areas, these experiments strongly reduced the bast scale population level in the following years but this was also due to the decay of the infested pine stands. Nevertheless, good perspectives are advanced by using these methods for controlling bast scale before the infestations become too heavy.

Bishop, D.B. & Bristow, C.M. 2003. Effects of the presence of the Allegheny mound ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in providing enemy-free space to myrmecophilous aphid and soft scale populations. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 96(3): 202-210. [BishopBr2003]
Notes: We tested whether ant-provided enemy-free space was a possible mechanism to explain the distribution of myrmecophilous aphids and soft scales in jack pine forests of north-central Michigan. Populations of the aphid Cinara banksiana Pepper and Tissot decreased significantly when the Allegheny mound ant, Formica exsectoides Forel, was excluded from their colonies. A combination of inclusion/exclusion experiments indicated that mound ants provided enemy-free space for aphids against mirid predators. In the absence of ants, mirids were a significant source of mortality to aphids. When ants were present, significantly more aphids survived in the presence of mirids than when ants were not present. Additional direct benefits to aphids provided by ant tending were not detected, In contrast, the soft scale, Toumeyella parvicornis (Cockerell), did not gain enemy-free space from the lady-beetle Hyperaspis binotata (Say) in the presence of ants during this study. Lady-beetle larvae increased in number over two years, and consumed large numbers of scales, which resulted in similar decreases of scale populations between ant-absent and ant-present treatments. This study indicates that an ant species can show differential effectiveness in providing enemy-free space to myrmecophilous homopterans.

Blanco, E. 2004. [First record of Chorizococcus caribaeus Williams & Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) from Cuba.] Primer registro de Chorizococcus caribaeus Williams y Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) en Cuba. (In Spanish). Boletín de la Sociedad Entomológica Argentina. Buenos Aires 34: 115-117. [Blanco2004]
Notes: The genus Chorizococcus was recently recorded from Cuba. Its economic importance is shown by the ability of some species within the genus to establish themselves in other geographical regions and damage economic crops. Ch. caribaeus Williams & G. de Willink is included among the species of the genus recorded from the Caribbean, and its distribution comprises the islands of Jamaica and Saint Kitts. Mealybug samples were taken from plants of Eleusine indica L. in Lawton, C. Habana, which were identified by means of the keys provided by Williams and Granara de Willink (1992). The presence of Ch. caribaeus in Cuba was noted for the first time and the variability of some taxonomic characters was compared with the data provided in the bibliography. The symbiosis of Ch. caribaeus with colonies of Solenopsis geminata Fabricius was observed for the first time. Also, oviparous habits were confirmed in the mealybug species by observing ovisacs on the affected plants.

Bogo, A. 2003. New group of oligosaccharides excreted in honeydew from scale insects Stigmacoccus sp. and Coccus hesperidium L. Ciencia Rural 33(4): 593-599. [Bogo2003]
Notes: The honeydew from the scale insects Stigmacoccus sp. and Coccus hesperidum were analysed using paper chromatography, FAB-MS and GC-MS. Paper chromatography showed the presence of tri-, tetra- and pentasaccharides. The molecular masses of permethylated tri-, tetra- and pentasaccharides confirmed that they were all hexose polymers with molecular ions of 658, 862 and 1067 m/z, respectively, in FAB-MS. The oligosaccharides in Stigmacoccus sp. honeydew appeared identical to the analogous components of C. hesperidum honeydew. A systematic increase in the proportion of 1,4-glucopyranose to 2-fructofuranose and 1-glucopyranose with each unitary increase in the number of monosaccharides was observed. Linkage analysis by GC-MS fragment for both Stigmacoccus sp. and C. hesperidum oligosaccharides showed fructofuranose linked in the 2 position, glucopyranose linked in both 1 and 4 positions and glucopyranose linked in the 1 position. The structures and common names, such as stigmatriose, stigmatetraose and stigmapentose, were proposed for the oligosaccharides (initially found in Stigmacoccus sp. honeydew).

Bogran, C.E., Heinz, K.M. & Ciomperlik, M.A. 2002. Interspecific competition among insect parasitoids: Field experiments with whiteflies as hosts in cotton. Ecology 83(3): 653-668. [BogranHeCi2002]
Notes: Aonidiella aurantii and Phenacoccus manihoti are mentioned.

Bokonon-Ganta, A.H., Neuenschwander, P. & de Groote, H. 2003. Biological control of the mango mealybug, Rastrococcus invadens (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in Africa. 437 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [BokonoNeDe2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] This paper presents results of a successful biological control project in which the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), CABI Bioscience, The Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) in Togo, the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), and several African biological control programs were involved.

Bolu, H. 2002. Investigations on the fauna of insects and mites in pistachio areas in South Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Turkiye Entomoloji Dergisi 26(3): 197-208. [Bolu2002]
Notes: A faunal survey was conducted in pistachio areas in Adiyaman, Batman, Madin, Siirt and Sanliurfa, in the southeastern Anatolia region, Turkey. A total of 70 harmful insect species belonging to 33 families and 7 orders, 3 harmful mite species belonging to 3 families, and 47 beneficial insect species were found. Eight economic pests were recorded, namely Kermania pistaciella, Sulamicerus stali, Suturaspis pistaciae, Chaetoptelius vestitus [Acrantus vestitus], Agonoscena pistaciae, Pistaciaspis pistaciae, Megastigmus pistaciae and Capnodis cariosa.

Bongiorni, S. & Prantera, G. 2003. Imprinted facultative heterochromatization in mealybugs. Genetica 117(2-3): 271-279. [BongioPr2003]
Notes: In lecanoid coccids, or mealybugs, the male development is accompanied by the facultative heterochromatization of the entire, paternally derived, haploid chromosome set. This epigenetic phenomenon occurs in all the cells of mid-cleavage male embryos. Consequently, the coccid chromosome system offers a powerful tool for gaining insights into the structure of facultative heterochromatin, and into the epigenetic mechanisms of its imprinted, developmentally regulated formation. This paper will present new data and summarize recent studies on genomic imprinting and facultative heterochromatization in mealybugs. First, the existence and the possible role of DNA methylation as an epigenetic modification that fulfills the requisites of the imprinting process in mealybugs will be considered. The second part of this paper will focus on proteins involved in the facultative heterochromatization process. In particular, the involvement of an HP-1-like protein in the silencing of the paternally derived haploid chromosome set and its interaction with the lysine 9 methylated isoform of histone H3 will be discussed.

Bongiorni, S., Fiorenzo, P., Pippoletti, D. & Prantera, G. 2004. Inverted meiosis and meiotic drive in mealybugs. Chromosoma. Berlin 112(7): 331-341. [BongioFiPi2004]
Notes: In the males of lecanoid coccids, or mealybugs, an entire, paternally derived, haploid chromosome set becomes heterochromatic after the seventh embryonic mitotic cycle. In females, both haploid sets are euchromatic throughout the life cycle. In mealybugs, as in all homopteran species, chromosomes are holocentric. Holocentric chromosomes are characterized by the lack of a localized centromere and consequently by localized kinetic activity. In monocentric species, sister chromatid cohesion and monopolar attachment play a pivotal role in regulating chromosome behaviour during the two meiotic divisions. Both these processes rely upon the presence of a single, localized centromere and as such cannot be properly executed by holocentric chromosomes. Here we furnish further evidence that meiosis is inverted in both sexes of mealybugs and we suggest how this might represent an adaptation to chromosome holocentrism. Moreover, we reveal that at the second meiotic division in males a monopolar spindle is formed, to which only euchromatic chromosomes become attached. By this mechanism the paternally derived, heterochromatic, haploid chromosome set strictly segregates from the euchromatic one, and it is then excluded from the genetic continuum as a result of meiotic drive.

Borbón, M. de, Gracia, O. & Gómez Talquenca, G.S. 2004. Mealybugs and grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3 in vineyards of Mendoza, Argentina. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 55(3): 283-285. [BorbonGrGo2004]
Notes: Possible vectors of grapevine leafroll-associated virus three in Mendoza, Argentina, were studied from 2000 to 2002. Mealybugs were not detected in the mid-south province, whereas some farms in the north were infested. The sole species present was Planococcus ficus. The increase of virus-infected plants in four experimental parcels and the transmission of a domestic isolate of GLRaV-3 by P. ficus strongly suggest the natural spread of the disease.

Borer, E.T., Briggs, C.J., Murdoch, W.W. & Swarbrick, S.L. 2003. Testing intraguild predation theory in a field system: does numerical dominance shift along a gradient of productivity? Ecology Letters 6(10): 929-935. [BorerBrMu2003]
Notes: Although ecological theory exists to predict dynamics in communities with intraguild predation (IGP), few empirical tests have examined this theory. IGP theory, in particular, predicts that when two competitors interact via IGP, with increasing resource productivity: (1) the IG predator will increase in abundance as the IG prey declines, and (2) increasing dominance of the IG predator will cause resource density to increase. Here, we provide a first test of these predictions in a field community consisting of a scale insect and its two specialist parasitoids, Aphytis melinus (the IG predator) and Encarsia perniciosi (the IG prey). The shared resource, California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii), is a pest of citrus, and its productivity varies across a threefold range among citrus cultivars. We examined both absolute and relative densities of parasitoids along this natural gradient of scale productivity in three citrus cultivars (orange, grapefruit and lemon). Although both parasitoid species were found in all three cultivars, their abundance reflected those predicted by IGP theory: the IG prey species dominated at low productivity and the IG predator dominated at high productivity. This relationship was caused by an increase in Aphytis density with productivity. In addition, the density of the scale increased with the dominance of the IG predator. These results from a field system demonstrate the important dynamic outcomes for food webs with IGP.

Borer, E.T., Murdoch, W.W. & Swarbrick, S.L. 2004. Parasitoid coexistence: Linking spatial field patterns with mechanism. Ecology 85(3): 667-678. [BorerMuSw2004]
Notes: Coexistence of resource specialists can be maintained through various spatial mechanisms, each potentially inducing different resource dynamics. We used observational data to suggest plausible spatial coexistence mechanisms for Aphytis melinus and Encarsia perniciosi, two parasitoids of California red scale. Aphytis consistently produced more progeny from scale insects on leaves, and Encarsia produced progeny equally from scale insects on leaves and stems. To investigate the mechanism inducing this pattern, we performed field experiments to test two possible explanations. In the absence of substrate choice and at a given abundance of scale, the number of progeny produced by each species was the same on stems as on leaves. When given a choice, Encarsia had no substrate preference, while Aphytis preferred scale insects on leaves, producing results qualitatively similar to the field observations. Ecological theory suggests that this form of habitat preference may facilitate coexistence. Although this mechanism of coexistence is clearly compatible with biological control by multiple natural enemies in the red scale-system, theory dealing with this type of interaction has not thoroughly examined the predictions for resource dynamics.

Borges, C.A.M. & Cruz, J.D. da 2004. [Agrotoxical selectivity to Oxystyla pulchella, a predator mollusk of Orthezia praelonga.] Selectividad de plaguicidas a Oxystyla pulchella, molusco depredador de Orthezia praelonga. (In Spanish; Summary In English). Manejo Integrado de Plagas y Agroecología NO. 71: 85-91. [BorgesCr2004]
Notes: Field (in an orange orchard in Fiera de Santana, Bahia, Brazil) and laboratory trials were carried out to evaluate the effect of different pesticides on populations of Oxystyla pulchella. The results show that the tested chemicals can be adopted by integrated pest management strategies involving O. pulchella as a biological control agent in citrus plantations.

Borges, L.R., Lázzari, S.M.N. & Lázzari, F.A. 2003. [Occurrence and population fluctuation of insects on native and dense cropping systems of maté, Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil.] (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Revista Brasileira de Entomologia 47(4): 563-568. [BorgesLaLa2003]
Notes: [Original title: Comparação dos sistemas de cultivo nativo e adensado de erva mate, Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil., quanto à ocorrência e flutuação populacional de insetos.] This research was carried out to compare the occurrence of insects in two maté cultivation systems, native and high tree density. It was performed from August 2000 to September 2001 in a private property in São Mateus do Sul county, in Paraná State, Brazil. Visual inspections of trees and light traps were used to evaluate insect populations in both areas. Among the species observed are nymphs and adults of Ceroplastes grandis (Hemiptera, Coccidae) on the branches, with population peak between April and June for the nymphs and from September to November for the adults. It should be considered that despite higher insect incidence in the dense area compared to the native area, the first presents higher yield, and that with a good pest management programme the insect problems can be minimized.

Botton, M., Scoz, P.L. & Arioli, C.J. 2002. IPM on peaches in Brazil: actual situation and future trends. Acta Horticulturae No. 592: 655-658. [BottonScAr2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of the 5th International Peach Symposium, Davis, California, 8-11 July, 2001. Volume 2. Scott Johnson, R. & Chrisosto, C.H. (Eds.)] Peaches (Prunus persica), being one of the most important temperate fruits, are grown in nearly 20000 ha in Brazil. Production is concentrated mainly in the Southern Region and fruits are destined for internal market, with 50% for fresh consumption and 50% for canning industry. The major pests of peaches are Oriental Fruit Moth Grapholita molesta and South American Fruit Fly Anastrepha fraterculus which causes 100% damage in non-treated orchards. Secondary pests include mites (Tetranychus urticae and Panonychus ulmi) and the white peach scale Pseudaulacaspis pentagona. Actual pest management is based on 4-6 pesticide applications per season (dimethoate, fenitrothion, fenthion and trichlorfon) to control G. molesta and A. fraterculus. As a result of this treatment programme, growers need to control P. pentagona and mites after harvest, resulting in additional spraying. Mating disruption is not available for pest management in the country. To reduce chemical insecticides in peaches, an integrated fruit production programme is being conducted, to produce fruits with high quality and low residue levels. To employ this new production system, pest monitoring is based on the use of pheromones and food lures establishing threshold levels. New compounds were evaluated including insect growth regulators for G. molesta and etofenprox and spinosad for preharvest treatments. Also, neonicotinoids insecticides are being developed for White Peach Scale control in localized applications. The goal of this programme is to reduce organic phosphate compounds and hence, the amount of chemicals and human health risk, preserve natural control and produce fruits with low residue levels.

Boyero, J.R., Pascual, F., Rodríquez, N. & Moreno, R. 2002. [Tactical decision support system for the protection against orange crop pests. II. Sampling design to estimate the diaspine incidence (Homoptera, Diaspididae).] (In Spanish; Summary In English). Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 28(4): 623-637. [BoyeroPaRo2002]
Notes: [Original title: Sistema de ayuda a la toma de decisiones tácticas en protección fitosanitaria de plantaciones de naranjo. II. Establecimento del diseño muestral para estimar la incidencia de diaspinos (Homoptera, Diaspididae) en parcela.] Results are presented of a study using the two-stage sampling for the estimation of Aonidiella aurantii incidence in diye orange orchards, two of Navelate, one of Navel Lane Late and one of Valencia Late, in Spain.

Briceño Vergara, A. 2002. [Current list of forest insect of Venezuela.] Lista de insectos de importancia forestal en Venezuela. (In Spanish; Summary In English). Revista Forestal Venezolana 46(1): 27-34. [Bricen2002]
Notes: A checklist of the main forest insect pests, which include the introduced species, from Venezuela is presented. Some main forest insect pests such as Thyrenteina arnobia in Eucalyptus spp., Arsenura armida in Bombacopsis quinata, Eulepte gastralis and Rhabdotalera signata in Tabebuia rosea, Xyleborus biseriatus in Cedrela odorata, Hypsipyla grandella in Meliaceae and Stigmacoccus aster in Cassia siamea, are described.

British Crop Protection Council 2002. The BCPC Conference: Pests and diseases, 2 vols. British Crop Protection Council (BCPC), Farnham, U.K.. 1042 pp. [BCPC2002]
Notes: [Conference held at the Brighton Hilton Metropole Hotel, Brighton, UK, 18-21 November 2002.] This proceedings contains 157 papers dealing with plant pests and diseases and their control. The potential role of transgenic crops in sustainable and durable pest and disease management is discussed, as well the role of functional biodiversity in managing pests and diseases. Some of the control measures discussed are the biological and chemical control methods, including the use of seed treatment. Discussion on pesticide resistance of pests and pathogens is also included. The objectives of the British Crop Protection Council are: (1) to examine current and developing issues in the science and practice of crop protection; (2) to promote improved, environmentally-sensitive crop protection practices to produce wholesome food; (3) to foster and support crop protection science and practice through conferences, symposia and publications and through the presentation of its views to government and other organizations; and (4) to present independent information to the general public on the place of crop protection in agriculture and horticulture and to encourage and contribute to education and training. Scale species are discussed in he paper Spirodiclofen: a broad-spectrum acaricide with insecticidal properties: efficacy on Psylla pyri and scales Lepidosaphes ulmi and Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Maeyer et al.).

Broufas, G.D., Koveos, D.S. & Georgatsis, D.I. 2002. Overwintering sites and winter mortality of Euseius finlandicus (Acari: Phytoseiidae) in a peach orchard in northern Greece. Experimental & Applied Acarology 26(1-2): 1-12. [BroufaKoGe2002]
Notes: In peach orchards of northern Greece Euseius finlandicus Oudemans overwinters in various sites on the trees, usually in groups of 5-15 females. Overwintering females were mostly found in bark crevices near the hibernation cocoons of the peach moth Adoxophyes orana (Fischer von Rosslerstamm), and also in small crevices of the bark and in pedicels left after fruit harvesting. Empty scales of dead diaspidids and dead coccids, cocoons of lacewings and mummies of parasitized aphids sporadically found on trees, were less common overwintering sites for females of the mite. In two successive years, mortality of overwintering females was very low, approximately 4 and 4.5% which could be due to the mild climate of northern Greece and the high cold tolerance of the mite.

Buitenhuis, R., McNeil, J.N., Boivin, G. & Brodeur, J. 2004. The role of honeydew in host searching of aphid hyperparasitoids. Journal of Chemical Ecology 30(2): 273-285. [BuitenMcBo2004]
Notes: Foraging in many insect parasitoids is mediated by chemicals associated with hosts. For example, honeydew, the feces of feeding aphids, induces and/or prolongs searching behavior of aphid parasitoids. In the laboratory, we tested if aphid hyperparasitoids, which belong to a higher trophic level, also rely on aphid honeydew to locate their hosts. We used the potato aphid, Macrosiphum euphorbiae, the primary parasitoid, Aphidius nigripes, and four hyperparasitoids, Asaphes suspensus, Dendrocerus carpenteri, Alloxysta victrix, and Syrphophagus aphidivorus that possess different biological attributes and host ranges. We determined if foraging hyperparasitoid females could discriminate between (i) honeydew from a host and a non-aphid host (the potato aphid and the soft brown scale, Coccus hesperidum), and (ii) honeydew from healthy aphids and those parasitized by A. nigripes. These results indicate that hyperparasitoids may use aphid honeydew, a conspicuous cue from the second trophic level, as an infochemical to locate their hosts.

Burban, C. & Petit, R.J. 2003. Phylogeography of maritime pine inferred with organelle markers having contrasted inheritance. Molecular Ecology 12(6): 1487-1495. [BurbanPe2003]
Notes: Range-wide variation of maritime pine was studied at maternally inherited and paternally inherited markers (mitochondrial DNA and chloroplast DNA). While chloroplast DNA exhibits the highest diversity, phylogeographic inferences from this marker are blurred by homoplasy and extensive pollen flow. In contrast, the only three mitochondrial haplotypes found provide a clear picture of nonoverlapping areas colonized from different refugia, with no single population having a mixed composition (GST=1). Comparison of the genetic structure inferred from both organelle genomes allows the investigation of differential seed and pollen dispersal, pointing to pollen, but not seed, dispersal across the Strait of Gibraltar (from Morocco into Iberia). A comparison with already available genetic information, especially that of one of the maritime pine's most threatening insect pests, the bast scale Matsucoccus feytaudi, further completes the picture.

Burnett, P.A. & Kawchuk, L.M. 2002. Insect-vectored crop diseases. 407-409 In: Pimentel, D. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York. 929 pp. [BurnetKa2002]
Notes: Among the insect vectors mentioned are Coccoidea and Pseudococcoidea.

Bustamente, J.A. 2002. Production, transformation and sales of cochineal products made in Chile. CACTUSNET NEWSLETTER (FAO International Technical Cooperation on Cactus) No. 7: 21-23. [Bustam2002]
Notes: This paper reviews the local cochineal production of Chile and the favorable climate for export.

Bustamento, J.A. 2002a. [Carmin as a commodity.] El carmín como commodity. (In Spanish). 26-27 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [Bustam2002a]
Notes: Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This paper discusses the economic environment of carmin production.

Byrne, D.N., Hendrix, D.L. & Williams, L.H. 2003. Presence of trehalulose and other oligosaccharides in Hemipteran honeydew, particularly Aleyrodidae. Physiological Entomology 28(2): 144-149. [ByrneHeWi2003]
Notes: Production by a bacterium of the disaccharide trehalulose was reported 30 years ago. The association between the fabrication of trehalulose and Insecta was found more recently. It was initially discovered in the honeydew, excreta, of the whitefly Bemisia tabaci feeding on Euphorbia pulcherrima where it was the predominant sugar. In the present study, B. tabaci-produced trehalulose was again found in honeydew at significant levels, this time when the whitefly fed on 10 different plants. In seven of ten Bemisia/host combinations, trehalulose accounted for more than 30% of the total carbohydrates found in their honeydew and was the principal oligosaccharide. Trehalulose constituents, glucose and fructose, were also present at lower levels, as were other oligosaccharides such as melezitose. Feeding by B. tabaci on the three other plant hosts also resulted in the production of trehalulose at relatively high levels (6.1-16.5%). Other whitefly species examined had little (e.g. B. afer and Aleurothrixus spp.), or no trehalulose (e.g. Trialeurodes spp. and Siphoninus phillyreae), in their honeydew. Trehalulose was also found in the honeydew of two aphid and one scale insect species. In insects whose honeydew had low levels or no trehalulose, sucrose, its constituents, or larger sugars predominated. The trisaccharide bemisiose was also found in the honeydew of half the whitefly species examined. Bemisiose was discovered here for the first time in the honeydew of three aphid species and three species of scale insects. Reasons for the production of trehalulose are often linked to high levels of dietary sucrose in whiteflies. This is probably true in our case because cotton and cucurbits, at least, are known to contain a great deal of sucrose. Although other functional possibilities were explored, the data suggest that trehalulose, being less susceptible to hydrolysis than sucrose, is involved in osmoregulation.

CAB International. 2002a. Rhizoecus hibisci Kawai & Takagi. Hemiptera. Coccoidea. Pseudococcidae. Distribution Maps of Pests Map no. 631: 2 pp. [CABI2002a]
Notes: Published in the U.K. by the International Institute of Entomology, an agency of CAB International; map showing distribution of this sp. worldwide; countries listed with references to records; attacks the roots of ornamental plants, e.g. Hibiscus, Cuphea, Pelargonium, Nerium and Phoenix spp.

Calatayud, P.A., Polania, M.A., Guillaud, J., Munera, D.F., Hamon, J.C. & Bellotti, A.C. 2002. Role of single amino acids in phagostimulation, growth, and development of the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus herreni. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 104(2/3): 363-367. [CalataPoGu2002]

Campos Figueroa, M. & Llanderal Cazares, C. 2003. Greenhouse production of cochineal insect Dactylopius coccus(Homoptera: Dactylopiidae). Agrociencia (Agrociencia) Texcoo 37(2): 149-155. [CamposLl2003]
Notes: A greenhouse was designed for the production of the cochineal Dactylopius coccus Costa on cut cladodes of Opuntia ficus-indica. The greenhouse has an area of 8x5.4 m and is made of roof and walls of rigid plastic, as well as zenithal and lateral ventilation with mesh protection. The interior has three levels at 50 cm of distance among them, with a total capacity for 2180 cut cladodes. The design allows a minimum handling of temperature, relative humidity and ventilation; and also avoids the entrance of competitors and natural enemies of the cochineal, providing appropriate conditions for the production of the insect. Three forms of cladode accommodation were evaluated: hanging cladode in the usual position, inverted hanging cladode and cladode supported in a raffia net. The registered variables were the number of females per cladode and their fresh weight. Significant differences (p=0.05) were found only in the number of females per cladode, where the inverted hanging cladode was superior to the cladode in raffia net. In this greenhouse it is possible to produce at least 50 kg of cochineal per year in four generations, including one of winter, which is not possible to obtain at open field.

Campos, J.M., Martínez-Ferrer, M.T. & Ripollés, J.L. 2003. Host and parasitoid densities influence on progeny and sex ratio of Anagyrus pseudococci (Girault) and Leptomastix dactylopii Howard Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae); two Planococcus citri (Risso) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) parasitoids. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 139-147. [CamposMaRi2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] The effects of different P. citri, A. pseudococci and L. dactylopii densities on progeny, parasitization and sex ratio were investigated under controlled laboratory conditions. L. dactylopii progeny numbers increased significantly as did host density until the host:parasitoid ratio was 80:1. Thereafter, the progeny numbers began to decline. The numbers of A. pseudococci progeny slightly increased as the host density increased. Parasitism percentages for the two parasitoids decreased as the host density increased. A. pseudococci and L. dactylopii attained optimum levels for mass production when the host:parasitoid ratios were 10:1 and 80:1, respectively. The numbers of A. pseudococci progeny increased with increasing parasitoid densities (2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 females) when the host density was held stable (480 P. citri). L. dactylopii only showed this trend at the lower parasitoid densities. The number of A. pseudococci progeny per female was not affected by parasitoid density, although the number of L. dactylopii progeny per female decreased as the parasitoid density increased. The sex ratios of A. pseudococci and L. dactylopii were unaffected by the modifications to parasitoid densities.

Cannard, M.P., Spooner-Hart, R.N. & Milner, R.J. 2002. Pathogenicity of water and oil based suspensions of Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin and Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) vuillemin to citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). General and Applied Entomology 31: 75-79. [CannarSpMi2002]
Notes: Laboratory bioassays compared the pathogenicity of five isolates of M. anisopliae (FI-1248, FI-1218, FI-0023, FI-1186 and FI-0985) and one isolate of B. bassiana (FI-1312) against second instar citrus mealybugs (P. citri) under conditions of 26 plus or minus 1 deg C and 85 plus or minus 1% RH in a 24-h dark period. All isolates exhibited pathogenicity. M. anisopliae isolate FI-1248 was the most virulent isolate in both water and oil suspensions with LC50 values of 6.4 x 105 and 3.4 x 104 conidia/ml, respectively. M. anisopliae isolate FI-0985 was found to be the least virulent.

Canyon, D., Speare, R., Naumann, I. & Winkel, K. 2002. Environmental and economic costs of invertebrate invasions in Australia. 45-66 In: Pimentel, D., Biological Invasions: Economic and Environmental Costs of Alien Plant, Animal, and Microbe Species. CRC Press, Boca Raton et al.. 369 pp. [CanyonSpNa2002]
Notes: Species listed in a table estimating the economic costs of production losses due to pests include two major pests imported into Australia, Aulacaspis tegalensis and Phenacoccus parvus.

Cardoso, G.D., Barreto, A.F., Araújo, E., Almeida, F.A. de & Carvalho, R.A.G. de 2003. [Ethiology [Etiology] and progress of the pestalotiopsis leaf spot in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) plantations at the district of São Gonçalo, Sousa, Paraíba state.] (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura 25(2): 335-336. [CardosBaAr2003]
Notes: [Original title: Etiologia e progresso da mancha de pestalotia do coqueiro (Cocos nucifera L.), em São Gonçalo, Paraíba.] Coconut cultivation has been spreading in Paraíba State, Brazil, mainly in the Alto Piranhas micro-region. The aim of this research was to determine the etiology and spread of a coconut hybrid foliar disease observed in the district of São Gonçalo, Sousa, Paraíba State. Observations on disease progress in coconut plantations were made monthly to determine disease incidence, severity and infection rates. 100% incidence was recorded. Greater severity was associated with the presence of mites and coccids. A Pestalotiopsis sp. was isolated and disease symptoms developed when the isolate was inoculated on wounded coconut leaves. The symptoms presented by the leaves either naturally and artificially infected were similar to those described in the literature for coconut leaf spot caused by Pestalotiopsis guepinii.

Carot, J.M., García-Marí, F., Laborda, R., Peña, J., Román, A. & Ibáñez, V. 2003. Methods of estimating degree-days of scales in citrus. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 103-106. [CarotGaLa2003]
Notes: [Conference proceedings: 'Integrated control in citrus fruit crops'. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, held in Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002 Published by International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP), Dijon, France, Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.)] One of the most important factors to achieve a good control of citrus armoured scales is the timing of pesticide application, which is related to the percentage of immature stages in the population. The average daily temperature and sampling data from seven citrus orchards in València, Spain were analysed to develop a predictive equation, with accumulated degree-days, for the first maximum of immatures of the citrus red scale Aonidiella aurantii. The descriptive analysis showed a sigmoidal trend in the graphic result. By correlating accumulated degree-days with accumulated percentage of immatures (expressed as probability units or "probits"), a linear model was obtained, with the possibility of comparing significant differences between orchards.

Causton, C.E. 2003. Ensuring compatibility of biological control of Icerya purchasi Maskell with conservation in the Galapagos: Development of a procedure to evaluate risk. 448-457 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [Causto2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] The methods described in this risk assessment were considered to be sufficiently rigorous to demonstrate the costs and benefits of introducing a biological control agent into an area of high conservation value. In practice, however, the lack of baseline data on the flora and fauna of the Galapagos and economic constraints limited the research that was carried out. The decision of whether to extend the project was ultimately defined by how long the GNPS was prepared to permit trials to continue at the risk of losing some species endangered by I. purchasi. Acquiring additional information on the ecology of invertebrate predators and other nontarget species would have required several years of further research, as would the physiological trials on plants to quantify I. purchasi damage in the field. Notwithstanding, the final conclusion reached by the GNPS was that the research demonstrated that a large number of endangered plant species are at risk from I. purchasi and that the use of classical biological control is unlikely to have significant negative impacts on this protected area.

Causton, C.E., Lincango, M.P. & Poulsom, TGA. 2004. Feeding range studies of Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant), a candidate biological control agent of Icerya purchasi Maskell in the Galápagos islands. Biological Control 29(3): 315-325. [CaustoLiPo2004]
Notes: The immediate threat of the cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi Maskell (Homoptera: Margarodidae), to the conservation of endangered flora in the Galapagos islands prompted conservation groups to assess the risks associated with the introduction of its natural enemy, Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Although R. cardinalis has been widely used for controlling this exotic pest, little information was found to confirm its presumed narrow feeding range. Consequently, studies were deemed necessary to determine whether the introduction of R cardinalis would harm the island's native invertebrate fauna, in particular rare or threatened species. Using no-choice trials, we tested neonate and third instar larvae of R. cardinalis against 16 and 11 potential prey species, respectively. Adults with prior feeding experience on I. purchasi were tested against eight non-target species and naive adults (those that had not fed on I. purchasi) were tested against six. These trials included up to 35% of the Homoptera species of conservation value presumed to have the highest risk of being preyed upon by R. cardinalis. To maximize the range of species exposed to R. cardinalis, feeding trials were also carried out with some introduced species representative of groups containing potential non-target species that were not located for testing. P. cardinalis was unable to complete its life cycle on any of the test prey species and only fed on Margarodes similis Morrison (Homoptera: Margarodidae), a species closely related to the cottony cushion scale. M. similis, however, is subterranean and in its natural habitat is not at risk from foraging by R. cardinalis. Based on these trials, we believe that immature stages of R. cardinalis will have no impact on the non-target invertebrate fauna of the Galapagos islands because they specialize on Margarodidae. Although the limited nature of our testing prevents us from reaching a definitive conclusion about the prey range of R. cardinalis adults, our results indicate that it is also narrow. According to our field and laboratory studies, niche overlap with native predators of Homoptera will be minimal and intraguild predation should not occur.

Ceballo, F.A. & Walter, G.H. 2004. Life history parameters and biocontrol potential of the mealybug parasitoid Coccidoxenoides peregrinus (Timberlake) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae): asexuality, fecundity and ovipositional patterns. Biological Control 29(2): 235-244. [CeballWa2004]
Notes: Properties relevant to the ovipositional activity and lifetime productivity of Coccidoxenoides peregrinus (Timberlake) were assessed in the laboratory, to determine the potential of this species as a biocontrol agent against the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso). In general, this species has not performed well in orchards, except for a few localities on different continents. The mode of reproduction of C. peregrinus is almost entirely thelytokous, with males produced sporadically and at low frequency. The females have both pro-ovigenic and synovigenic traits, which raises questions of the utility of this distinction. The females have a high reproductive potential with 10-20 eggs per day available within the first two days (after a short (12 h) pre-oviposition period), and 80-150 eggs per day thereafter until death at about eight days. Mean lifetime fecundity was 239.2 ± 34.3 eggs. C. peregrinus oviposits across a range of P. citri instars, but productivity relies predominantly on second instar hosts. Second stage (N2) hosts received most eggs in choice (about 52%) and no-choice (about 50%) tests. Most eggs deposited into N2 hosts (82%) reached adult stage whereas only a few of those deposited into N1 and N3 (about 5% each) developed successfully. The haemolymph of parasitised reproductive mealybugs contained granular structures and no parasitoid eggs were found 24 h after exposure to ovipositing wasps. Also, no wasps emerged from parasitised adult hosts that were kept alive. Parasitoid eggs deposited into adult hosts were presumed encapsulated and destroyed, as control mealybugs (not exposed to female wasps) had no granular structures in their haemolymph. Wasps exposed to an abundance of hosts soon started ovipositing, but only for a relatively short time each day (about 2.5 h out of a 7 h exposure). They stopped ovipositing despite eggs judged to be mature in their ovaries. The reproductive output of C. peregrinus is discussed in relation to the ecological factors that could influence this output, and the implications for biocontrol are discussed.

Ceballos, M.R. 2003. [New bio-regulator for Antonina graminis (Maskell) (Homoptera: Coccoidea) in Cuba.] Nuevo biorregulador para Antonina graminis (Maskell) (Homoptera: Coccoidea) en Cuba.) (In Spanish). Revista de Protección Vegetal (Cuba) 18(1): 65-66. [Ceball2003]
Notes: Neodusmetia sangwani, a parasite of A. graminis, is reported for the first time in Cuba.

Cebeci, H. & Selmi, E. 2004. The Coccidae species of Turkey. Orman Fakültesí Dergísí/Review of the Faculty of Istanbul 54(1): 207-228. [CebeciSe2004]
Notes: This paper provides scientific names, syononymy, distributions and host plants of 45 Coccidae species recorded in Turkey. Five subfamilies are represented in Turkey, Ceroplastinae, Coccinae, Eulecaniinae, Eriopeltinae and Filippiinae.

Chapman, S.K., Hart, S.C., Cobb, N.S., Whitham, T.G. & Koch, G.W. 2003. Insect herbivory increases litter quality and decomposition: An extension of the acceleration hypothesis. Ecology 84(11): 2867-2876. [ChapmaHaCo2003]
Notes: Herbivore alteration of litter inputs may change litter decomposition rates and influence ecosystem nutrient cycling. In a semiarid woodland at Sunset Crater National Monument, Arizona, long-term insect herbivore removal experiments and the presence of herbivore resistant and susceptible pinyon pines (Pinus edulis) have allowed characterization of the population- and community-level effects of herbivory. Here we report how these same two herbivores, the mesophyll-feeding scale insect Matsucoccus acalyptus and the stem-boring moth Dioryctria albovittella alter litter quality, dynamics, and decomposition in this ecosystem. We measured aboveground litterfall, litter chemical composition, and first-year litter decomposition rates for trees resistant and susceptible to both herbivores and for susceptible trees from which herbivores had been experimentally removed for 16-18 years. Both herbivores significantly increased nitrogen concentration and decreased lignin:nitrogen and carbon:nitrogen ratios of aboveground litter. Herbivory by scale insects also increased litter phosphorus concentration and annual needle litterfall mass. Consistent with its increased chemical quality, litter from herbivore-susceptible trees decomposed more rapidly in the first year. These results suggest that herbivory may increase nutrient cycling rates in this system by altering the chemical quality of litter, a mechanism that augments the nutrient acceleration hypothesis. The distribution of trees resistant and susceptible to the two herbivores at our site, and their associated variation in litter quality and decomposition, likely creates a mosaic of litter quality and nutrient cycling rates at the landscape scale. Further, because the differences in litter quality are associated with tree resistance and susceptibility traits, our findings are among the first to establish that intraspecific genetic variation may affect ecosystem function.

Charles, J.G. & Henderson, R.C. 2002a (2001). The exotic armoured scale insects in New Zealand. Bollettino di Zoologia Agraria e di Bachicoltura (Milano) 33(3): 503. [CharleHe2002a]
Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS IX International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at The University of Padua, Italy, Sept. 2-8, 2001.] [abstract of poster] Historical literature and curated collections were examined and reviewed to provide an up-to-date list of the exotic Diaspididae present in New Zealand at May 2001. 26 species of exotic Diaspididae are known to be established in the country.

Charles, J.G., Allan, D.J. & Zydenbos, S.M. 2002. An ecological perspective to host-specificity testing of biocontrol agents. New Zealand Plant Protection 55: 37-41. [CharleAlZy2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held at the Quality Hotel in Palmerston North, New Zealand in 2001. Published by the New Zealand Plant Protection Society, Rotorua, New Zealand.] Classical biological control programmes have historically been viewed positively, but in the new social context of "all new invaders are bad", the perceived environmental threats from new natural enemies are regarded by some as unacceptable. Host-specificity testing of proposed biocontrol agents is required to provide environmental safety assurances, but laboratory methods are likely to be flawed and cannot mimic the reality of nature. It is proposed that analysis of the realised host-range of long-established exotic parasitoids may help to predict the impacts of proposed, new biocontrol agents and supplement laboratory testing. This approach was used in 1999 when applying to New Zealand's Environmental Risk Management Authority for approval to release the parasitoid Pseudaphycus maculipennis (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) against the obscure mealybug, Pseudococcus viburni (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). The data from New Zealand and elsewhere indicate that new encyrtid parasitoids of mealybugs have shown no propensity to attack native species over time.

Chassagnard, M.T. & Tsacas, L. 2003. [The Oriental and Australian species of the subgenus Cacoxenus (Gitonides) Knab (Diptera: Drosophilidae).] Les espèces orientales et australiennes du sous-genre Cacoxenus (Gitonides) Knab (Diptera: Drosophilidae). (In French; Summary In English). Annales de la Société Entomologique de France 39(3): 271-286. [ChassaTs2003]
Notes: Seven new species are described in the subgenus Gitonides of the genus Cacoxenus: six from India (C. campsiphallus sp. nov. on cotton mealy bug, C. orientalis sp. nov., C. pachyphallus sp. nov. predatory on Trionymus sacchari [Saccharicoccus sacchari] on sugarcane, C. paulodentatus sp. nov. larvae preying on mealybugs on sugarcane, C. ripersiae sp. nov. larvae preying on Ripersia oryzae [? Brevennia rehi] and C. oxyphallus sp. nov.) and one from Australia (C. australicus sp. nov. on Pseudococcus sp. on passionfruit vine). A key for the identification of these species is given. C. punctatus, previously known as a synonym of C. perspicax is now rehabilitated. Twenty-two species and one subspecies belong at present to the subgenus Gitonides and they are distributed in five biogeographical regions: Palaearctic, Afrotropical, Oriental, Australian and Ocean. One species, C. perspicax, is distributed in more than one biogeographical region. The subgenus is missing from the Nearctic and the Neotropical regions. An analysis of the problem of the identity of C. perspicax and the reasons of its erroneous interpretation was attempted. The consequences of this problem with respect to the systematics and the distribution of the subgenus are also discussed.

Chávez Moreno, C.K. & Tecante Colonel, A. 2002. [Extraction of red cochineal (Dactylopius coccus) by means of a solvent: characterized by separation and transference of mash.] (In Spanish). 124-136 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [ChavezTe2002]
Notes: [Original title of paper: Extracción con disolvente del colorante rojo de la cochinilla (Dactylopius coccus): caracterización de la separación y la transferencia de masa. Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This paper explains a technique used to extract the red dye contents of cochineal.

Chen, S.J. 2003. Bionomics of Parlatoria oleae and its control. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Entomological Knowledge 40(3): 266-267. [Chen2003]
Notes: P. oleae is the major pest of the Kurle fragrant pear in Xinjiang, China, where it appears to be a local dominant species of Diaspididae. This pest heavily attacks the branches, leaves and fruits of its host. It produces 2 generations per year and overwinters as impregnated female adults. The middle of May is the crucial period for the control of this pest on Kurle.

Chen, S.P. & Chen, C.N. 2003. New species and new record of Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) from Taiwan. (In English; Summary In Chinese). Formosan Entomologist 23(3): 239-244. [ChenCh2003]
Notes: Two species of Encyrtidae were reared from nymphs and female adults of Antonina graminis and Pseudococcus longispinus, respectively, in Taiwan. Among them, Anagyrus thailandicus is recorded in Taiwan for the first time. Cryptanusia taiwanus sp. nov. is new to science. Anagyrus thailandicus is listed with figures, and the new species is described and illustrated with figures.

Chen, Y.Q., Chen, X.M. & Li, K. 2002. [A discussion on indexes and methods of economic evaluation of lac insect.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Forest Research 15(5): 531-536. [ChenChLi2002]
Notes: Comprehensive methods and formulas of lac insect evaluation were proposed in this paper based on such indexes from lac insect cultivation and production. These formulas could be shown as follows: 1) E=eXpX(1-m)X(1-s) for seed lac; 2) I=(Nt+1)/Nt=PI (si)cntdotpfemalecntdotF for production and 3) E=pX(1-m)X(1-s)Xd for host trees. It is more objective and reasonable for judging the insect on its seed lac, production and host tree adaptability by ways of comprehensive evaluation than by traditional methods.

Chen, Y.Q., Chen, X.M. & Li, K. 2003. [A probe into the mortality of lac insect population and improvement of the mortality formula.] (In Chinese). Forest Research 16(2): 135-140. [ChenChLi2003]
Notes: Field research was conducted on 7 host tree species and lac insect (Kerria lacca) population dynamic of lac insect during estival generation. The results are as follow: Different host tree has different growing speed, the increment of the area of branch without lac insect is up to 30%-50% among different host trees at the end of lac insect life history, otherwise, the increment of the area of branch with lac insect is up to 15%-40%; the branch has different growing speed in different orientation, the longitude growth is five times faster than transverse growth; the host trees of lac insect grow slowly at the beginning of lac insect life history, but grow fast during lac insect adult period. Differently aged branches of the same host tree have different growing speed. Younger branches grow faster than older ones. Host tree of lac insect grows slower during winter than that during estival. Lac insect has higher mortality in larvae stage, and the total mortality of lac insect is more than 90%. Former formula for lac insect mortality M = (d - d')/d, ignores that host tree growth has influence on the statistical result of lac insect population. According to the truth that host tree of lac insect grows continuously during the whole life cycle of lac insect, an improved new formula to count mortality of lac insect M = (d - Cd')/d is proposed.

Chen, Y.Q., Chen, X.M., Li, K., Shi, L. & Chen, Z.Y. 2004. [Preference of lac insect to host branch in foraging.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Forest Research 17(2): 159-166. [ChenChLi2004]
Notes: A study was conducted to determine the characteristics of lac foraging behaviour of Kerria lacca and its preference to host branch in foraging. Results showed that K. lacca hardly hosted on branches over two years old and the distribution of lac insects on branches had no relation to orientation. The diameter of hosted branches ranged from 0.47-1.60 cm. On erect branches, K. lacca was distributed around the branch but on most declining branches, K. lacca only settled on the shaded parts. Comparison anatomy showed that the periderm and cortex of two-year-old branches were thicker than those of one-year-old branches. Furthermore, the layer of sclereids and fibres in two-year-old branches was thicker than that in one-year-old branches by 27 micro m. The distance from periderm to phloem of 2-year-old branches was farther than that of one-year-old branches. The periderm and cortex of the upper parts of the branches were thinner than the basic parts of the branch. The phloem of parts reached by sunlight was thinner than the shaded parts. Furthermore, the keratinization of host tree suberin and tinsel on the epiderm also inhibited K. lacca foraging.

Chen, Y.Q., Chen, X.M., Li, K., Shi, L. & Chen, Z.Y. 2004a. [A study on the relationship between amino acid content of host trees and Kerria lacca.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Forest Research 17(3): 362-367. [ChenChLi2004a]
Notes: This study describes the relationship among the amino acids (viz., aspartic acid, threonine, serine, glycine, alanine, isoleucine, tyrosine, valine, leucine, phenylalanine, methionine, histidine, lysine, arginine and tryptophan) in the unhosted and hosted branches of Schleichera oleosa by Kerria lacca, and its biological characteristics.

Chen, S.P., Chen, C.N. & Wong, C.Y. 2002. [New record of a pest - Phenacoccus solani Ferris (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in Taiwan.] Journal of Agricultural Research of China 51(2): 79-82. [ChenChWo2002]
Notes: The mealybug, P. solani, endangering many hosts, was found in Taiwan in 2002. Some comments on morphological characteristics, geographical distribution, parasitoid and host plants of the insect are described.

Chen, X.F., Liu, Y.S., Bei, S.G. & Dai, W.C. 2004. Influence of temperature on development and reproduction of Dactylopius coccus Costa. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Shandong Agricultural University 35(2): 301-303. [ChenLiBe2004]

Chen, G.H., Tao, M., Yang, B.L. & Chen, F.S. 2003. Study on the population dynamics of Chilocorus rubidux Hope and its predacious function. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Yunnan Agricultural University 18(2): 136-139. [ChenTaYa2003]
Notes: From March to September 2001, a field survey of the population dynamics of Chilocorus rubidux [Chilocorus rubidus] was carried out in a plum orchard in Chenggong, Kunming, China. In this orchard, Didesmococcus koreanus caused severe damage to the trees and no chemical control measures were applied. A laboratory experiment was also carried out to observe the predacious function of C. rubidus as the natural enemy of D. koreanus. C. rubidus showed the largest population in mid-April and mid- to late July. Simulation of the predacious role of C. rubidus with the mathematical models of Holling-II and Holling-III demonstrated that the optimum seeking density of adults, fourth- and third-instar larvae was 76.31, 35.61 and 32.24, respectively. The seeking efficiency of the ladybird decreased with an increase in the population density of the prey. The seeking efficiency of adults was greatest, followed by that of 4th- and 3rd-instar larvae.

Chen, G.H., Tao, M., Yang, B.L. & Zhu, L.G. 2003a. Studies on spatial distribution of parasitic wasps population of Parlatoria pergandii Comstock. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Southwest China Journal of Agricultural Sciences 16(4): 82-84. [ChenTaYa2003a]
Notes: The spatial distribution of parasitic wasps infesting P. pergandii (average of 12% infestation rate) in apple fields in Kunming, Yunnan, China is discussed. The parasitic species are: Aphytis proclia, Coccophagus hawaiiensis, Encarsia berlesei, Marietta carnesi, Anicetus sp., Teleterebratus perversus and Microterys clauseni. Parasitization was higher in upper plant parts than in mid-low parts, and in the western and northern parts of the apple field than the eastern and southern.

Chen, Y.Q., Xu, T., Chen, X.M. & Li, K. 2003. [Study on comparative anatomy of bark of seven host tree species of Kerria lacca (Kerr.) and its parasitic characteristics.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Forest Research 16(4): 411-417. [ChenXuCh2003]
Notes: Bark anatomy was studied in seven host species of Kerria lacca, i.e., Albizia lucida, Koelreuteria paniculata, Acacia montana [Paraserianthes lophantha], Ziziphus mauritiana, Ficus racemosa, Flemingia macrophylla and Schleichera oleosa. Bark on all the host tree species consists of periderm, cortex and secondary phloem but their layer structures differed. The periderm of F. macrophylla was the thinnest among the seven and the cortex of Albizia lucida was the thinnest. In the periderm of K. paniculata and Acacia montana, the phellem was remarkably thick in certain places. However, the phellem of Z. mauritiana had keratin distributed as dots. Furthermore, the layer of sclereids of Z. mauritiana was the thickest with four layers but they were not as continuous as the layers found in F. macrophylla and A. montana. A. montana had the thinnest layer of phloem while F. macrophylla had the thickest. A. montana had the smallest sieve tube density. F. macrophylla, K. paniculata and Z. mauritiana were observed to have simple column rays while S. oleosa and Ficus racemosa had simple, double and several columns of ray. The effects of these host tree species on the adhesion density and mortality of Kerria lacca are discussed.

Chi, D., Yan, S.C., Zhao, X.H. & Wen, Z.H. 2003. The taxis of chalcid parasitoids to their host and analysis of the volatile from fixed first instar nymphs of Quadraspidiotus gigas (Thiem & Gerneck). Journal of Northeast Forestry University 31(2): 20-22. [ChiYaZh2003]
Notes: Four armed olfactory instrument was used to test the taxis of the parasitoids Encarsia gigas and Pteroptrix longiclava [Pteroptrix longiclava] to the body, to the scale, or to both the body and scale of the fixed first instar nymph of Quadraspidiotus gigas. The scale and the combination of both the body and scale were more attractive to the parasitoids than that of the body alone. Analysis of the chemical components of the volatiles from the body or scales using GC-MS method showed the presence of 9 compounds.

Chi, D.F., Ocete, R.R., Yan, S.C., Zhang, D.D. & Wen, Z.H. 2002. Foraging behavior of parasitoid chalcid to the essential oil from bark of Populus pseudo-simoniiXP. nigra and Quadraspidiotus gigas. Journal of Forestry Research 13(4): 255-259. [ChiOcYa2002]
Notes: Four-armed airflow olfactometer was used to determining the foraging behavior of Pteroptrix longgiclava (Girault) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) and Encarsia gigas (Tshumakova) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) to the essential oils which emitted from the healthy bark of Populus pseudo-simoniiXP. nigra, the infested bark injured by Quadraspidiotus gigas (Thiem AMP; Gerneck), the body and scale of fixed 1st-instar-nymph of Q. gigas. The results from these experiments showed that the volatile oils produced from the injured bark and from the scale of fixed 1st-instar-nymph had a higher attractive ability to female adults of the two species of wasps. The essential oil produced from the scale of the pest at dosages of 3-7muL and the essential oil emitted by injured bark at dosages of 5-9 muL had a stronger alluring effect on the host searching behavior of Pteroptrix longgiclava. The essential oil from the body of fixed 1st-instar-nymph of Q. gigas also had certain effect on the host locating effort of Pteroptrix longgiclava and Encarsia gigas. Those two wasps did not show any reaction to the essential oil produced by the healthy bark of poplar.

Chi, D.F., Rubio, R.O., Yan, S.C., Zhang, D.D. & Wen, Z.H. 2002. Foraging behavior of parasitoid chalcid to the essential oil from bark of Populus pseudo-simonii x P. nigra and Quadraspidiotus gigas. Journal of Forestry Research 13(4): 255-259. [ChiRuYa2002]
Notes: Four-armed airflow olfactometer was used to determine the foraging behavior of Pteroptrix longgiclava (Girault) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) and Encarsia gigas (Tshumakova) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) to the essential oils which emitted from the healthy bark of Populus pseudo-simonii x P. nigra, the infested bark injured by Quadraspidiotus gigas (Thiem & Gerneck), the body and scale of fixed first-instar-nymph of Q. gigas. The results from these experiments showed that the volatile oils produced from the injured bark and from the scale of fixed first-instar-nymph was more attractive to female adults of the two species of wasps. The essential oil produced from the scale of the pest at dosages of 3-7 micro L and the essential oil emitted by injured bark at dosages of 5-9 micro L had a stronger alluring effect on the host searching behavior of Pteroptrix longgiclava. The essential oil from the body of fixed 1st-instar-nymph of Q. gigas also had certain effect on the host locating effort of Pteroptrix longgiclava and Encarsia gigas. Those two wasps did not shown any reaction to the essential oil produced by the healthy bark of poplar.

Chiappini, E. & Negri, F. 2004. Flagellar sensilla of Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Comstock (Rhynchota: Diaspididae) male. Micron 35(7): 597-605. [ChiappNe2004]
Notes: The flagellar sensory structures of Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Comstock (Rhynchota: Diaspididae) male have been investigated, using scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Five categories of sensilla have been identified: three types of sensilla trichodea, a sensillum coeloconicum and a sensillum basiconicum. The possible function of sensilla is discussed, considering their location, morphology and ultrastructure. No gustatory sensilla have been detected. All the setae (sensilla trichodea) present on the flagellomeres, except for the three 'knobbed' ones that are mechanosensilla, are cuticular components of olfactory structures. These olfactory sensilla are of two distinct types, having fluted or smooth hairs; furthermore, the fluted ones present different typologies for a varied number of dendrites. They are conceivably used for perceiving female sexual pheromone. It might be that each of the different components of the female sexual pheromone is perceived by a specific sensillum. Two types of supposed thermo-hygroreceptors have been found, one sensillum coeloconicum and two sensilla basiconica.

Childers, C.C. 2002. Practical use of horticultural mineral oils in integrated pest and disease management programs and their impact on natural enemies. 332-348 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [Childe2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Species mentioned include Aonidiella aurantii, Ceroplastes destructor, C. rubens and Unaspis yanonensis.

Chimenos, J.M., Fernandez, A.I., Villalba, G., Segarra, M., Urruticoechea, A., Artaza, B. & Espiell, F. 2003. Removal of ammonium and phosphates from wastewater resulting from the process of cochineal extraction using MgO-containing by-product. Water Research 37(7): 1601-1607. [ChimenFeVi2003]
Notes: The wastewater produced by the cochincal extract process to obtain the carminic acid colouring pigment (carmin red E120) has high concentrations of phosphates and ammonium. A batch process has been proposed for the removal of ammonium and phosphates from wastewater obtained in cochineal extracts processing, previously to biological treatment to diminish the COD.

Chong, J.H., Oetting, R.D. & Van Iersel, M.W. 2003. Temperature effects on the development, survival, and reproduction of the Madeira mealybug, Phenacoccus madeirensis Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), on chrysanthemum. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 96(4): 539-543. [ChongOeVa2003]
Notes: The Madeira mealybug, Phenacoccus madeirensis Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), has become an increasingly damaging pest in greenhouse ornamental production. Current management tactics of P. madeirensis require a regular chemical application schedule targeting the immature stages. Knowledge of the life cycle of P. madeirensis is important to the success of its management program. We investigated the effects of constant temperature (15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 degrees C) on the development, survival, and reproduction of P. madeirensis on chrysanthemum (Dendrathema x grandiflora Kitam.). We failed to establish colonies at 30-40 degrees C. Between 15 and 25 degrees C, the duration of development of all developmental stages were shortened at higher temperatures. The total duration of development of female mealybugs was approximate to 30 d at 25 degrees C, 46 d at 20 degrees C, and 66 d at 15 degrees C. Developmental time of males was 3-9 d longer than females. Survival rates of individual instars ranged between 88 and 100% and were not influenced by temperature. Overall, >75% of eggs completed development to adulthood. Female mealybugs made up 50% of the adult populations in all temperature treatments. Adult longevity at 25 degrees C was approximate to 3 and 20 d for males and ovipositing females, respectively. Females at 20 degrees C produced the highest number of eggs (491 +/- 38 eggs/female).

Chong, J.H., Van Lersal, M.W. & Oetting, R.D. 2004. Effects of elevated carbon dioxide levels and temperature on the life history of the Madeira mealybug (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). Journal of Entomological Science 39(3): 387-397. [ChongVaOe2004]
Notes: Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations and temperatures are increasing and, thus, the interactions between insect herbivores and their host plants in environments of elevated CO2 concentration and temperature must be examined. We investigated the combined effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration (400 and 700 micro mol mol-1) and temperature (20, 25 and 30 deg C) on the development, survival and reproduction of two generations of the Madeira mealybug, Phenacoccus madeirensis, and the chemical composition of chrysanthemum, Dendranthema x grandiflora [Chrysanthemum morifolium, syn. [Dendranthema morifolium]], leaves. The development of the mealybugs was temperature-driven and was not influenced by the CO2 level or the number of generations. At higher temperatures, the duration to egg eclosion and the developmental time of adult females and males were significantly shortened. More eggs survived to adulthood at higher temperatures. Temperature had no influence on the egg eclosion percentage. The reproductive period of females was shortest at 30 deg C, while fecundity was highest at 20 deg C. There was a significantly higher proportion of females at the end of the experiment at lower than at higher temperatures. Elevated CO2 level and temperature did not change the chemical composition (nitrogen and carbon concentrations, and carbon-nitrogen ratio) of the host plants. Relative water content of the leaf tissues was higher at 30 deg C than other temperature treatments. Our results show that the effects of temperature on the biology of the Madeira mealybug were stronger than that of the elevated CO2 concentration.

Ciampolini, M. & Guarnone, A. 2003. Proliferation of Parthenolecanium corni in vineyards. Informatore Agrario 59(17): 81-85. [CiampoGu2003]
Notes: The morphology, life cycle and reproductive behaviour of P. corni have been widely studied and described. It thrives on a wide variety of plants in temperatures of 21-27 deg C and 60-70% humidity. It has been confirmed as a vector of grapevine leaf roll associated virus (GLRaV-1). Surveys in 2000 and 2001 in Italy showed that the females laid large numbers of eggs in May and again in late August, so avoiding the high summer temperatures. Many potential parasitoids and predators of P. corni exist, the presence of different species being dependent on varying environmental conditions (climate, host plants, etc.). The insect is sensitive to a wide range of insecticides which must be chosen in relation to the crop, local legal restrictions and environmental considerations.

Ciampolini, M., Lunghini, D. & Mocetti, G. 2003. [Pseudococcus viburni, an insidious enemy of fruit production.] Insidioso nemico della frutticoltura: Pseudococcus viburni. (In Spanish; Summary In English). Informatore Agrario 59(1): 57-60. [CiampoLuMo2003]
Notes: The plant pest P. viburni (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) is discussed in relation to: (1) systematic position and geographical distribution; (2) biology; (3) host plants and damage; and (4) control measures. Chemical control experiments conducted in 2002 in the Viterbo area of Italy on apples are briefly reported.

Claps, L.E. 2002. [The cochineals (Insecta: Hemiptera: Coccoidea) associated with Cactaceae in Argentina.] Las "cochinillas" (Insecta: Hemiptera: Coccoidea) asociadas a Cactaceae en la República Argentina. (In Spanish). 71-72 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [Claps2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] Species known to be associated with cactus in Argentina include Abgrallaspis cyanophylli, Aonidomytilus albus, Dactylopius austrinus, D. ceylonicus, D. coccus, D. confertus, D. salmianus, D. zimmermanni, Diaspis boisduvalli, D. echinocacti, Hypogeococcus festerianus and H. pungens.

Claps, L.E. & Dos Santos Wolff, V.R. 2003. [Diaspididae (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) frequently found on plants of economic importance in Argentina and Brazil.] Cochinillas Diaspididae (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) frecuentes en plantas de importancia económica de la Argentina y Brasil. (In Spanish). Publicación Especial de la Sociedad Entomológica Argentina (3): 58 pp. [ClapsDo2003]
Notes: Thirty one species of scale insects on ornamentals, forest trees, fruit, etc. are registered for Argentina and Brazil. A key to the genera, as well as the characterization and illustration of all species are also included. Data on economic importance and host plants are provided, and an alphabetical list of host plants associated with the scales, are given.

Cloyd, R.A. 2003. Effect of insect growth regulators on citrus mealybug [Planococcus citri (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)] egg production. HortScience 38(7): 1397-1399. [Cloyd2003]
Notes: Greenhouse trials were conducted during 2000-01 to evaluate the indirect effects of insect growth regulators, whether stimulatory or inhibitory, on the egg production of female citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri). Green coleus plants (Solenostemon scutellarioides) were infested with 10 late third instar female citrus mealybugs. The insect growth regulators kinoprene, pyriproxyfen, azadirachtin, buprofezin, and novaluron were applied to infested plants at both the high and low manufacturer recommended rates. Beginning two days after treatments were applied, plants were monitored daily to determine when female mealybugs began to oviposit. The individual mealybugs were removed from plants, placed into glass vials containing 70% isopropyl alcohol when female mealybugs started to oviposit, and dissected to determine the number of eggs. Overall, there were no consistent patterns to suggest that the insect growth regulators and different rates tested had any effect on the egg production of citrus mealybug females. Although, in one instance, the insect growth regulators kinoprene and pyriproxyfen actually lowered citrus mealybug egg production. In addition, the insect growth regulator buprofezin numerically increased female citrus mealybug egg production.

Cock, M.J.W. 2003. Risks of non-target impact versus stakeholder benefits in classical biological control of arthropods: selected case studies from developing countries. 25-33 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [Cock2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] Species discussed include Maconellicoccus hirsutus and Orthezia insignis.

Colombini, M.P., Bonaduce, I. & Gautier, G. 2003. Molecular pattern recognition of fresh and aged shellac. Chromatographia 58(5/6): 357-364. [ColombBoGa2003]
Notes: Two GC-MS procedures for the characterization of shellac, a resin from Kerria lacca widely used in the field of art, were developed. One procedure was based on pyrolysis assisted by the hexa-methyldisilazane reaction on-line with GC-MS and the other on the saponification of the sample assisted by microwave followed by GC-MS analysis. The former is a rapid and valuable method for resin identification and the latter gives a more in depth understanding of its composition. Butolic, aleuritic and its derivative acids together with typical sesquiterpenoid compounds were the main molecules identified and used as markers for the molecular pattern recognition of the resin in fresh and old samples (19th century shellac from the Salvemini Collection and gilding samples from the 15th century frescoes of the Duomo of Monza).

Constant, P.B.L., Stringheta, P.C. & Sandi, D. 2002. [Food colorants.] Corantes alimentícios. (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Boletim do Centro de Pesquisa e Processamento de Alimentos 20(2): 203-220. [ConstaStSa2002]
Notes: This paper deals with the concern of the food industry sector on issues related to the application of food colourants for making foods more attractive to consumers. The advantages and disadvantages of natural colourants and the types of colourants commonly used in the food industry (anthocyanins, annatto, cochineal carmin, curcumin, betalains) are presented.

Conway, G. & Toenniessen, G. 2003. Science for African food security. Science 299(5610): 1187-1188. [ConwayTo2003]
Notes: Phenacoccus manihoti is among the pest species discussed.

Cook, L.G. 2003. Apiomorpha gullanae, sp. n., an unusual new species of gall-inducing scale insect (Hemiptera: Eriococcidae). Australian Journal of Entomology 42(4): 327-333. [Cook2003]
Notes: An unusual new species of the gall-inducing scale insect genus Apiomorpha Rubsaamen is described from Queensland. The adult female, its gall, and the first-instar nymph (crawler) are illustrated, and relationships of the new species are estimated using mitochondrial COII data. Adult females induce cigar-shaped galls on leaves of several eucalypts in section Adnataria of subgenus Symphyomyrtus. The bilobed anal lobes of the adult female differ from those of all other Apiomorpha species (single lobe) and the first-instar nymph possesses features, such as broad frontal tubercles and dorsal stripes, that are not present in crawlers of other Apiomorpha species. However, DNA sequence data confirm that the new species falls within Apiomorpha, rather than representing a sister group, and indicate that the new species is not closely related to the A. pharetrata (Schrader) species-group, the only other group within Apiomorpha that induces cigar-shaped galls on leaves. The systematic affiliations of A. gullanae sp. n. are currently not known. Females only are known and there is some indication that reproduction in the new taxon is parthenogenetic. This represents the first putative case of parthenogenesis in Apiomorpha.

Cook, L.G. & Gullan, P.J. 2004. The gall-inducing habit has evolved multiple times among the eriococcid scale insects (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea: Ariococcidae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 83: 441-452. [CookGu2004]
Notes: The habit of inducing plant galls has evolved multiple times among insects but most species diversity occurs in only a few groups, such as gall midges and gall wasps. This phylogenetic clustering may reflect adaptive radiations in insect groups in which the trait has evolved. Alternatively, multiple independent origins of galling may suggest a selective advantage to the habit. We use DNA sequence data to examine the origins of galling among the most speciose group of gall-inducing scale insects, the eriococcids. We determine that the galling habit has evolved multiple times, including four times in Australian taxa, suggesting that there has occurred on Myrtaceae, we found that lineages feeding on Myrtaceae are no more likely to have evolved the galling habit than those feeding on other plant groups. However, most gall-inducing eriococcid species occur on Myrtaceae, we found that lineages feeding on Myrtaceae are no more likely to have evolved the galling habit than those feeding on other plant groups. However, most gall-inducing species-richness is clustered in only two clades (Apiomorpha and Lachnodius + Opisthoscelis), all of which occur exclusively on Eucalyptus s.s. The Eriococcidae and large genus Eriococcus were determined to be non-monophyletic and each will require revision.

Cooper, D.D. & Cranshaw, W. 2004. Seasonal biology and associated natural enemies of two Toumeyella spp. in Colorado. Southwestern Entomologist 29(1): 39-45. [CooperCr2004]
Notes: Observations were made during 1994 and 1995 on the life history and associated natural enemies of two Toumeyella spp. of soft scale which recently have become established as important pests in several Colorado communities. Observed host plants of the striped pine scale, Toumeyella pini (King), included Pinus sylvestris, Pinus mugo, Pinus edulis and Pinus nigra; observed hosts of the pine tortoise scale, Toumeyella parvicornis (Cockerell), were Pinus contorta and P. sylvestris. Both species were observed to have only a single generation per year. Crawler emergence of T. pini began in Denver on 1 June in 1994 and 21 June in 1995. This was close to that observed with T. parvicornis in Loveland and Greeley, 27 May in 1994 and 21 June in 1995. Crawlers were present for about one month. No parasitoids were recovered from T. pini, but predators of early instar stages included the coccinellids Hippodamia convergens (Guerin-Meneville), Coccinella septempunctata L. and a predatory lampyrid, Lucidota sp. Conversely, an Aphytis sp. aphelinid wasp may be important on populations of P. parvicornis.

Cozzi, G., Stornelli, C., Moretti, A., Logrieco, A. & Porcelli, F. 2002. Field evaluation of Fusarium larvarum formulations in the biocontrol of Saissetia oleae on olive in Apulia. Acta Horticulturae 586: 811-814. [CozziStMo2002]
Notes: The efficacy of field strains of F. larvarum (ITEM 2135 and ITEM 2139), isolated from adults of the almond scale insect Suturaspis archangelskyae, was evaluated in Apulia (southern Italy) from 1993 to 1998 as biological control agents against populations of Saissetia oleae. Assays were conducted using a solid formulation obtained by growing fungal cultures on rice at 25 deg C for 4 weeks. Suspensions of the fungal formulations were spread on olive branches infested by S. oleae. Significant insecticidal effect was observed. At 7 days after treatment, the formulations reduced S. oleae populations by 65 to 70%, regardless of the rate of colony forming unit used. After 30 days, a significant control of crawlers and second instar larvae was obtained except with ITEM 2135 with the lowest CFU, indicating that the insecticidal activity was significantly reduced with time. Nevertheless, the insecticidal activity of the formulations was evident even after 80 days.

Cruz Hernández-Hernández, F. de la, García-Gil de Muñoz, F., Rojas-Martínez, A., Hernández-Martínez, S. & Lanz-Mendoza, H. 2003. Carminic acid dye from the homopteran Dactylopius coccus hemolymph is consumed during treatment with different microbial elicitors. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology 54(1): 37-45. [CruzHeGaRo2003]
Notes: The activation of Dactylopius coccus (Costa) hemolymph with microbial polysaccharide molecules was studied. Hemolymph incubated in the presence of laminarin, zymosan, and N-acetyl glucosamine produced a dark fibrillar precipitate, and the red pigment (carminic acid) was consumed (measured spectrophotometrically at 495 nm). Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) did not induce any response. The reaction was inhibited with millimolar concentrations of serine and cysteine protease inhibitors, EGTA and phenyl thiourea. It was also diminished by prostaglandin synthesis inhibitors: dexamethasone, acetylsalicylic acid, and indomethacin. However, Mg2+ chelator EDTA did not inhibit hemolymph activation. Hemolymph proteins were depleted from soluble phase during treatment with laminarin, but a group of around 34 kDa remained unmodified. These results showed that D. coccus hemolymph is activated by microbial elicitors, its activation depends on eicosanoids, and suggest participation of a prophenoloxidase (PPO)-like activation system that could consume carminic acid. We are currently dissecting the molecular factors involved in D. coccus hemolymph activation to determine homologies and differences with other arthropod immune response pathways.

Cuervo, M., Calatayud, P., Fernando Múnera, D., Belloti, A. & Calvert, L.A. 2002. Molecular Identification of Cassava Mealybugs. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Cali, Colombia. [CuervoCaFe2002]
Notes: [Poster] Photographs, results of RAPD PCR, cloning and sequence analysis of a region of the 16S mitrochondrial DNA and discussion are displayed on a full-color poster, downloaded from the CIAT website. (http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/ipm/pdfs/mealbugs.pdf)

Cullen, J. & Sands, D. 2003. Douglas Frew Waterhouse -- a dedication. 17-22 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [CullenSa2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] The biological control of passion fruit scale, Pseudaulacaspis pentagona, was an early successful project in Samoa.

Cziklin, M., Schweigert, A. & Makó, S. 2003. [Protection of plums.] (In Hungarian). Növényvédelem 39(6): 263-278. [CzikliScMa2003]
Notes: Species mentioned include Diaspidiotus perniciosus, Epidiaspis leperii, Parthenolecanium corni, Pseudaulacaspis pentagona and Sphaerolecanium prunastri.

Daane, K.M., Malakar-Kuenen, R., Guillén, M., Bentley, W.J., Bianchi, M. & González, D. 2003. Abiotic and biotic pest refuges hamper biological control of mealybugs in California vineyards. 389-398 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [DaaneMaGu2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] Species discussed include Planococcus ficus, Pseudococcus longispinus, P. maritimus and P. viburni.

Daane, K.M., Malakar-Kuenen, R.D. & Walton, V.M. 2004. Temperature-dependent development of Anagyrus pseudococci (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) as a parasitoid of the vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Biological Control 31(2): 123-132. [DaaneMaWa2004]
Notes: The influence of temperature on Anagyrus pseudococci (Girault) development and overwintering was investigated to improve biological control of the vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus (Signoret), in California vineyards. At a constant 32 deg C, egg development required two days, larval development ranged from 0.7 plus or minus 0.1 (second instar) to 1.9 plus or minus 0.1 (fifth instar) days, and pupal development was 3.9 plus or minus 0.1 days. Under eight constant temperatures (12, 14, 17, 22, 27, 32, 34, and 36 deg C), A. pseudococci completed development (egg to adult eclosion) from 14 to 34 deg C. Development times ranged from 79.1 plus or minus 1.0 days (14 deg C) to 10.2 plus or minus 0.3 days (34 deg C). We determined optimal, maximum and minimum development temperatures to be 24.7, 36.0 and 11.6 deg C, respectively, and the thermal constant is 223.5 degree-days. We compared these laboratory-derived temperature relationships to A. pseudococci field-monitored populations from March through November. Laboratory-data suggests there are seven to eight A. pseudococci generations during this period, two generations to each vine mealybug generation. Overwintering studies show that A. pseudococci emergence was concentrated over a 15 day period in early May, regardless of when vine mealybugs were exposed (October 2001 to March 2002). Results suggest that cues other than temperature are used to synchronize overwintered A. pseudococci adult emergence with field availability of vine mealybug.

Daane, K.M., Mills, N.J. & Tauber, M.J. 2002. Augmentative controls. 36-38 In: Pimentel, D. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York. 929 pp. [DaaneMiTa2002]
Notes: Aonidiella aurantii and mealybugs are mentioned as targets of augmentative release programs.

Dabiré, R.A., Somda, I., Traore, N.S. & Ouédraogo, S.N. 2002. [Diagnostic study on the principal pests of mango tree in Burkina Faso.] Étude diagnostique sur les principales attaques parasitaires du manguier, Mangifera indica L., au Burkina Faso. (In English; Summary In French). 287-293 In: [Sixth International Conference on Pests in Agriculture. Vol. 1.] Sixième Conférence Internationale sur les Ravageurs en Agriculture. Tome 1.] AGRO, Montpellier, France. 350 pp. [DabireSoTr2002]
Notes: [Conference held 4-6 December 2002 in Montpellier, France.] Rastrococcus invadens has become a serious problem on mango in Burkina Faso, depending to some extent on parameters such as variety, type of soil and exact location.

Dang, X.D. & Wang, H.Z. 2002. Eleven new species of Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera) from Shaanxi Province, China. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Entomotaxonomia 24(4): 289-300. [DangWa2002]
Notes: This paper describes 11 new species from Shaanxi, China, namely, Anagyrus pergandei sp. nov., A. nesticoccus sp. nov., Copidosoma dioryctria sp. nov., C. hanzhongenum sp. nov., C. malacosoma sp. nov., Echthrodryinus aphidius sp. nov., Metaphycus eriococcus sp. nov., M. phenacoccus sp. nov., M. qinlingensis sp. nov., M. shaanxiensis sp. nov., and Trichomasthus quadraspidiotus sp. nov. Their respective hosts are: Phenacoccus pergandei, Nesticoccus sinensis, Dioryctria pryeri, noctuid larvae, Malacosoma neustria, Aphidus sp., Eriococcus kaki [Acanthococcus kaki], Pulvinaria sp., Lecanium [Coccus] sp., Lecanium sp. and Quadraspidiotus perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus].

Danoff-Burg, J.A. & Bird, S. 2002. Hemlock woolly adelgid and elongate hemlock scale: partners in crime? 254-268 In: Onken, B., Reardon, R. & Lashomb, J. (Eds.), Proceedings: Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the Eastern United States Symposium. Hemlock Woolly Adelgid Infestations 2002. N.J. Agricultural Experiment Station, the State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick. 403 pp. [DanoffBi2002]
Notes: [Symposium on the Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in Eastern North America, conference held February 5-7, 2002, East Brunswick, New Jersey.] The increased mortality of the eastern hemlock in North America has been primarily attributed to the invasion of the hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA). However, in parts of the range of eastern hemlock, the elongate hemlock scale (EHS) (Fiorinia externa), another introduced Asian insect, also infests stands and weakens trees. An important step towards achieving the goal of reducing eastern hemlock mortality is to understand how these two exotic insects impact hemlock stands. To address this question, we estimated levels of infestation of HWA and EHS found on 153 trees along the length of an eastern hemlock stand in the Black Rock Forest, Orange County, New York. We also estimated the relative abundance of each of these insects and the levels of needle loss and new growth on these hemlock trees. Using these data, we then determined that both HWA and EHS abundance was significantly correlated with the early stages of hemlock decline, as indicated by the suppression of new growth in infested trees. However, an advanced stage of hemlock health decline, as indicated by needle loss, was significantly correlated with EHS abundance but not HWA abundance. We suggest that HWA and EHS at least contribute equally to the decline of hemlocks at our field site, but that damaging outbreaks of EHS may be enabled by HWA feeding.

Danzig, E.M. 2003. Mealybugs of the genus Phenacoccus Ckll. (Homoptera, Pseudococcidae) of the fauna of Russia and adjacent countries. (In Russian; Summary In English). Entomologicheskoe Obozrenye 82(2): 327-361. [Danzig2003]
Notes: This paper presents a key to 19 species with descriptions of all species except for the recently described Phenacoccus loiki Danzig. Lectotypes of 10 nominal species are designated. The following new synonymies are revealed: Phenacoccus Cockerell, 1893 (=Densispina Ter-Grigorian, 1964, syn.n.); Phenacoccus hordei (Lindeman, 1886) (=avetianae Borchsenius, 1949, syn.n.); P. aceris (Signoret, 1875) (=gorgasalicus Hadzibejli, 1960, syn.n.); P. karaberdi Borchsenius et Ter-Grigorian, 1956 (=affinis Ter-Grigorian, 1963; =gramineus Ter-Grigorian, 1964; =sogdianicus Nurmamatov et Bazarov, 1987, syn.n.).

Danzig, E.M. 2004. [A review of species of the mealybug genus [Phenacoccus Ckll. (Homoptera, Coccinea, Pseudococcidae) associated with firs with a discussion of the polymorphism in Ph. piceae (Loew).] (In Russian; Summary In English). Entomologicheskoe Obozrenye 83(3): 530-537. [Danzig2004]
Notes: A group of closely related species of the genus Phenacoccus living on different species of Picea is revised. This group consists from one Nearctic and five Palaearctic species. Phenacoccus piceae in contrast to other Palaearctic species is characterized by intraspecific variation in the number of circuli and presence of dorsal multiocular pores. Polymorphism of Ph. piceae is probably explained by its wide Euro-Siberian distribution and association with two different species of host plants, Picea abies in Europe and P. obovata in Siberia.

Dauphin, P. & Matile-Ferrero, D. 2003. [The presence of Ceroplastes sinensis Del Guercio (Homoptera: Coccidae) on Baccharis halimifolia L. (Asteracea) in Gironde.] Présence de Ceroplastes sinensis Del Guercio (Homoptera: Coccidae) sur Baccharis halimifolia L. (Astéracées) en Gironde. (In French). Bulletin de la Société Linnéenne de Bordeaux 31(4): 261-263. [DauphiMa2003]
Notes: New data on host plants of Ceroplastes sinensis in France.

Davies, A.P., Ceballo, F.A. & Walter, G.H. 2004. Is the potential of Coccidoxenoides perminutus, a mealybug parasitoid, limited by climatic or nutritional factors? Biological Control 31(2): 181-188. [DaviesCeWa2004]
Notes: The encyrtid Coccidoxenoides perminutus is a widely distributed parasitoid of citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri). Worldwide, it has been implicated in successful biocontrol in only a few widely separated localities. C. perminutus contributes little to control P. citri in field situations in southeast Queensland, Australia, but invades insectary cultures and reduces mealybug populations considerably under these controlled conditions. This discrepancy between poor field performance and good performance under controlled conditions was investigated to establish whether climatic factors inhibit the field performance of this species in the biological control of P. citri. Subsequent laboratory examination of the influence of varied humidities and temperatures on the activity levels and survival of C. perminutus revealed a low tolerance for high saturation deficits (i.e., low % RH at high T deg C) with reduced reproductive output. The influence of different food sources on adult survival and reproduction was also quantified, to establish if the adverse effects of climate could be overcome by supplementing adult diet. Neither honeydew from their mealybug hosts nor nectar from Alphitonia flowers significantly enhanced parasitoid survival. A subsequent test of five nectar species revealed a significant difference in their influence on C. perminutus survival and reproduction, with only Alpinia zerumbet proving to be as suitable as honey. The floral species that proved suitable in the laboratory need to be checked for their attractiveness to C. perminutus in the field and for their ability to enhance the survival and reproductive output of parasitoids. This information suggests that the prevailing dry conditions in southeast Queensland citrus-growing areas apparently impede successful biological control of P. citri by C. perminutus, but possibilities are available for habitat manipulation (by providing suitable nectar sources for adult parasitoids) to conserve and enhance C. perminutus activity in the field.

Davoodi, A., Talebi, A.A., Rajabi, G.R. & Fathipour, Y. 2002. The first report of Microterys hortulanus (Hym.: Encyrtidae) from Iran. (In English; Summary In Persian). Journal of Entomological Society of Iran 22(1): Pe85-Pe86. [DavoodTaRa2002]
Notes: Studies were carried out to determine parasitoid wasps of soft scale insects (Coccidae) in Tehran, Iran, in 2002. Samples of Eulecanium coryli [E. tiliae] collected from prune trees in different orchards were held in insect cages at room conditions. Emerged wasps were preserved in 75% ethyl alcohol. Among the samples, some parasitoid wasps of M. hortulanus were observed. According to the literature, M. hortulanus is a new record from Iran. Some morphological characters of the adult female are as follows: metallic dark brown dorsal surface of body but light brown to orange ventral surface and head; 11-segmented antennae; forewing with two dark regions; the length of the abdomen less than that of the thorax and with three long setae on each side.

Davoodi, A., Talebi, A.A., Rajabi, G.R. & Fathipour, Y. 2002a. Report of Metaphycus angustifrons Compère (Hym.: Encyrtidae), parasitoid of Coccus hesperidum (L.) (Hom.: Coccidae) from Iran. Journal of Entomological Society of Iran 22(2): 79-80. [DavoodTaRa2002a]
Notes: In 2002, a survey was carried out to determine parasitoid wasps of soft scale insects (Coccidae) in Tehran province, Iran. Some samples of Coccus hesperidum were collected from locust and mulberry trees in Karaj between late September and mid-November. The samples were held in insect cages at room temperature. Among the emerged wasps, some parasitoid wasps of Metaphycus angustifrons Aphycus angustifrons] were observed and identified. According to literature, M. angustifrons is a new record from Iran. Some morphological characters of females are as follows: 1.0- to 1.2-mm body length; light brown dorsal surface of body but yellow to white ventral surface; 11-segmented antennae; hyaline forewing. Some morphological characters of males are as follows: 0.9- to 1.1-mm body length; 9-segmented antennae; pale yellow abdomen ventral surface, but other morphological characters are similar to those of females.

De Groote, H., Ajuonu, O., Attignon, S., Djessou, R. & Neuenschwander, P. 2003. Economic impact of biological control of water hyacinth in Southern Benin. Ecological Economics (Amsterdam) 45(1): 105-117. [DeGrooAjAt2003]
Notes: Mealybugs are mentioned.

Del Río Dueñas, I.J. 2002. [The importance of carmine cochineal in Mexican independence.] La importancia de la grana del carmín or cochinilla fina en la independencia mexicana. (In Spanish). 62 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal 7 Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [DelRio2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This paper discusses the value of the dye produced from Dactylopius coccus on the historical events leading to Mexico's independence.

Demeyere, A. 2004. [Little cherry virus: a new threat for cherry cultivation?] Little cherry virus: een nieuwe bedreiging voor de kersenteelt? (In Dutch). Fruitteelt 17(10): 18-19. [Demeye2004]
Notes: Distribution of this virus (LChV1, LChV2 and LChV3) in Europe is discussed and symptoms are described. The vector in Canada for LChV3 is Phenacoccus aceris and Canadian insect control measures are outlined. Detection and control of the vector in Belgium are briefly discussed.

Deng, Y.Y. & Li, Q.W. 2002. Preliminary report on several pesticides control of Kermes nawae Kuwana. Journal of Jiangsu Forestry Science and Technology 29(5): 33-34. [DengLi2002]
Notes: Seven pesticides were applied to control Kermes nawae, primary pest damaging Castanea mollissima. Methidathion was sprayed at 0.04% solution.

Denmark, H.A. 2004. Regulatory entomology and biological control: A tribute to Reece Sailer. Florida Entomologist 87(2): 244-249. [Denmar2004]
Notes: Biographical information is presented about this entomologist. Among the species he worked with are Chrysomphalus aonidum, Fiorinia theae and Icerya purchasi.

de Silva, D.P.P., Jones, P. & Shaw, M.W. 2002. Identification and transmission of Piper yellow mottle virus and Cucumber mosaic virus infecting black pepper (Piper nigrum) in Sri Lanka. Plant Pathology 51(5): 537-545. [deSilvJoSh2002]
Notes: Sri Lankan black pepper with symptoms of yellow mottle disease contained a mixture of viruses: Piper yellow mottle virus (PYMV) particles (30 x 130 nm), cucumber mosaic virus (CMV, 30 nm diameter isometric particles), and unidentified, isometric virus-like particles (30 nm diameter). An effective purification procedure is described for PYMV. Immunosorbent and conventional electron microscopy successfully detected badnavirus particles only when at least partially purified extracts were used. PYMV was confirmed as the cause of the disease, with the other two viruses apparently playing no part in producing symptoms. PYMV was transmitted by grafting, by the insect vectors citrus mealy bug (Planococcus citri) and black pepper lace bug (Diconocoris distanti), but not by mechanical inoculation or through seeds. The CMV isolate was transmitted to indicator plants by mechanical inoculation and by the vector Aphis gossypii, but not by Myzus persicae; but neither mechanical nor insect transmission of CMV to black pepper was successful. A sensitive polymerase chain reaction assay was developed to detect PYMV in black pepper.

Deyton, D.E., Sams, C.E. & Pless, C.D. 2002. Soybean oil delays peach tree flowering, thins fruit, and kills key arthropod pests of deciduous fruit trees. 410-418 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [DeytonSaPl2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Species discussed include San José scale and terrapin scale.

Dezhakam, M. & Soleyman-nejadian, E. 2002. Fauna of symbiotic ants with the southern mealybug Nipaecoccus viridis new.(Hom.: Pseudococcidae), on citrus in Khuzestan. The Scientific Journal of Agriculture Shahid Chamran Univ. Press (Iran Islamic Republic) 24(2): [DezhakSo2002]
Notes: Symbiotic ants with Nipaecoccus viridis New. were collected on citrus trees in Khuzestan, a southern province of Iran. A total of 16 species from 12 genera and 3 subfamlies were collected from which 9 species were the first record for Iran.

Dill, M. 2002. III. Taxonomy of the migrating herdsmen species of the genus Dolichoderus Lund, 1831, with remarks on the systematics of other Southeast Asian Dolichoderus. (In English; Summary In German). 17-113 In: Dill, M., Williams, D.J. & Maschwitz, U. (Eds.), Herdsmen Ants and their Mealybug Partners, Band 557 Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, . 373 pp. [Dill2002]
Notes: Dolichoderus is the largest and morphologically most diverse genus of the subfamily Dolichoderinae. The genus occurs in the Neotropical, Nearctic, Palearctic, Oriental, and Australian regions, and is most diverse in the tropical forests of the New World and the Oriental region. The geographical distribution matches distribution of the mealybug tribe Allomyrmococcini, which comprises the specific trophobiotic partners of the herdsmen ants. The majority are arboreal. Associated mealybug species include Archeomyrmococcus dolichoderi, Bolbococcus oresbius, B. sabahanus, Borneococcus bauensis, Cataenococcus hispidus, Coccus viridis, Dicranococcus, Doryphorococcus lentiginosus, Dysmicoccus brevipes, Drepanococcus sp., Hippeococcus wegneri, H. rappardi, Kerria? sp., Lecanium sp., Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Malaicoccus sp., Paramyrmococcus chiengraiensis, Planococcus lilacinus, Promyrmococcus dilli, P. wayi, Pseudococcus crotonis, P. cryptus, P. dorsospinosus, P. elisae (P. jackbeardsleyi), Rastrococcus vicorum, Steatococcus sp., and Thaimyrmococcus daviesi.

Dill, M. & Maschwitz, U. 2002. II. The migrating herdsmen symbioses of Southeast Asia: Overview and geographical distribution. (In English; Summary In German). 9-15 In: Dill, M., Williams, D.J. & Maschwitz, U. (Eds.), Herdsmen Ants and their Mealybug Partners, Band 557 Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, . 373 pp. [DillMa2002]
Notes: The migrating herdsmen lifestyle proved to be a common and widely distributed phenomenon in Southeast Asia. In addition to the first known herdsmen system, the association of Dolichoderus cuspidatus with several Malaicoccus species in Peninsular Malaysia, this report substantiates, or at least makes plausible, the herdsmen lifestyle of numerous Southeast Asian species. Mealybug species listed include Allomyrmococcus acariformis, Archeomyrmococcus dolichoderi, Bolbococcus oresbius, B. sabahanus, Borneococcus bauensis, B. calvescens, B. pastorius, Diacranococcus apiensis, D. storki, Doryphorococcus lentiginosus, Hippeococcus wegneri, H. rappardi, Malaicoccus cameronensis, M. clavulatus, M. eastopi, M. formicarii, M. khooi, M. kubahensis, M. maschwitazi, M. moundi, M. pilulosus, M. poringensis, M. riouwensis, M. sabahensis, M. sarawakensis, M. sumatranus, M. takhashii, M. tapahensis, M. tiomanensis, Paramyrmococcus chiegraiensis, Promyrmococcus dilli, P. wayi and Thaimyrmococcus daviesi.

Dill, M. & Maschwitz, U. 2002a. V. Biology of the migrating Herdsmen symbioses. (In English; Summary In German). 183-339 In: Dill, M., Williams, D.J. & Maschwitz, U. (Eds.), Herdsmen Ants and their Mealybug Partners, Band 557 Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, . 373 pp. [DillMa2002a]
Notes: This chapter discussed localities, colony size, colony structure, queen number, nesting behaviour, trail systems, activity patterns, trophobiotic partner species of herdsmen Dolichoderus, species-specificity of herdsmen mutualism and mutual interdependence of the herdsmen partners, food plants of the Allomyrmococcini, distribution of the trophobions within the Dolichoderus colony, behaviour of the trophobiotic partners at the trophobiotic partners at the trophobiosis sites, transport of the trophobiotic partners, colony relocation, non-trophobiotic nutrition of herdsmen Dolichoderus, nutrition of herdsmen, transport of trophobiosis partners, trophobiosis partners in the ants' nest, nesting mode and nest relocation behaviour and evolutionary aspects. Species discussed include Allomyrmococcus acariformis, Archeomyrmococcus dolichoderi, Bolbococcus sabahanus, B. oresbius, Borneococcus bauensis, B. calvescens, B. pastorius, Dicranococcus sabahensis, D. storki, Doryphorococcus lentiginosus, Hippeococcus montanus, H. rappardi, H. wegneri, Malaicoccus cameronensis, M. clavulatus, M. eastopi, M. formicarii, M. khooi, M. kubahensis, M. maschwitzi, M. moundi, M. pilulosus, M. poringensis, M. riouwensis, M. sarawakensis, M. sumatranus, M. tapahensis, M. tiomanensis, Paramyrmococcus chiengraiensis, P. vietnamensis, Promyrmococcus dilli, P. wayi and Thaimyrmococcus daviesi.

Dill, M. & Maschwitz, U. 2002b. VI. A paradox: herdsmen without herdsmen's partners - preliminary stage to herdsmen lifestyle or secondary loss of the specific partners. (In English; Summary In German). 341-354 In: Dill, M., Williams, D.J. & Maschwitz, U. (Eds.), Herdsmen Ants and their Mealybug Partners, Band 557 Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, . 373 pp. [DillMa2002b]
Notes: Topics discussed include discovery of colonies of herdsmen {Dolichoderus} without Allomyrmococcini partners, Taxonomic status of herdsmen {Dolichoderus} without Allomyrmococcini, Investigations of behaviour and lifestyle of herdsmen {Dolichoderus} without Allomyrmococcini, and experimental offering of Allomyrmococcini. Species mentioned include {{Allomyrmococcus acariformis, Bolbococcus oresbius, B. sabahanus, Malaicoccus formicarii, M. khooi, M. maschwitzi} and {Paramyrmococcus chiengraiensis}.

Dill, M., Williams, D.J. & Maschwitz, U. (Eds.) 2002. (In English; Summary In German). In: Herdsmen Ants and their Mealybug Partners, Band 557 Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, . 373 pp. [DillWiMa2002]
Notes: Herdsman symbiosis is a highly complex obligate and widely species-specific trophobiosis, consisting of various Dolichoderus ant species and many mealybug species, all belonging to the pseudococcid tribe Allomyrmococcini. The ants keep their Allomyrmococcini partners within their bivouac nests and transport them to freshly growing parts of various host plants. If the changing feeding sites are too far away from the nest the whole colony moves to a new nesting site nearby. Reproduction of the colonies is performed by fission. The symbiosis complex is found in Sundaland in tropical Asia reaching from Sumatra, Borneo and Malay Peninsula to Java and then northern Thailand; according to museum specimens extending north possibly to Sikkim, east to Vietnam and west to the Mentawai Islands. The centre of diversity is Borneo. In a few mountainous regions of the Malay Peninsula and northern Thailand, some subpopulations of two herdsmen ant species secondarily have lost their Allomyrmococcini partners. 36 species of mealybugs are included of which 25 are described as new. Through the highly integrated and well synchronized biology of both partners, the extremely high degree of mealybug polyphagy correlated with high mobility, transport behaviour and effective recruitment abilities of the ants, herdsmen symbiosis appears to be an extremely efficient strategy for exploitation of its moist rain forest habitat. Herdsmen are optimally adapted to use the extremely high plant diversity with its great special heterogeneity and its complex time growth dynamics as a nutritional resource: the honeydew excreted by the mealybugs feeding on freshly growing plant parts, especially rich in essential nutrients. Taxonomic and ethological results are discussed concerning co-evolution and co-cladogenesis of both partner groups and possible scenarios of herdsmen evolution are suggested.

Ding, X.Y. 2003. The occurrence regularity of plum mulberry scale and its control. China Fruits 4: 9-11. [Ding2003]
Notes: During 1998-2000 observations were carried out in a plum orchard in China. Results showed that the mulberry white scale (Pseudaulacaspsis pentagona) [Pseudaulacaspis pentagona] has 4 generations a year in Gutian area. The adult females hibernate on the branches and start egg-laying when the mean daily temperature reaches 17 deg C. The peak periods of the young scales are in mid-April, early to mid-July, early-mid September and mid-late October. Spraying a 1000 times solution of 40% omethoate or a 1000 times solution of 40% Supracide [methidathion] in the vegetative period achieved good control. Spraying Bordeaux mixture + 0.3% sodium pentachlorophenate in the dormant period after pruning is also effective.

Ding, X.Y. 2003a. Biology and control of Pseudaulacaspis pentagona on oil nane. Entomological Knowledge 40(3): 264-265. [Ding2003a]
Notes: White peach scale, P. pentagona, is one of the major insect pests of oil nane tree [Prunus salicina]. It has four generations per year and overwinters as impregnated adult female on the branches of oil nane under the conditions of Gutian country, Fujian province, China. The female begins to lay eggs when the mean temperature is 17 deg C. The peak of the larval population for each generation occurs separately at the early and middle parts of April, July and September, and the last part of October. Generations begin to overlap starting at the second generation. The population of the first generation is higher than that of others. The control of P. pentagona by various methods, including winter clipping, pesticide application and natural enemy release, is presented.

Domenech Carbo, A., Domenech Carbo, M.T., Suari Peris, M.C., Gimeno Adelantado, J.V. & Bosch Reig, F. 2003. Electrochemical identification of anthraquinone-based dyes in solid microsamples by square wave voltammetry using graphite/polyester composite electrodes. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 375(8): 1169-1175. [DomeneDoSu2003]
Notes: [Conference title: European Conference on Analytical Chemistry (Euroanalysis 12) held in Dortmund, Germany, Sep 08-13, 2002.] An electrochemical method for identifying anthraquinone-type dyes in microsamples from works of art, based in the voltammetry of microparticles approach, is reported. Upon attachment onto graphite/polyester composite electrodes, natural pigments aloe, henna, cochineal red, madder lake, kermes, shellac, and alizarin and purpurin taken as reference materials can be identified from their square wave voltammetric profiles in MeCN (0.10 mol L-1 Bu4NPF6) and aqueous (0.25 mol L-1 acetic acid+0.25 mol L-1 sodium acetate) electrolytes. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article if you access the article at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00216-002-1742-8. A link in the frame on the left on that page takes you directly to the supplementary material.

Domínguez, J., Pina, T. & Verdú, M.J. 2003. Effects of the mineral oil Sunspray UltrafineR on California red scale parasitoids Aphytis chrysomphali, A. lingnanensis, Comperiella bifasciata and Encarsia perniciosi. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 117. [DomingPiVe2003]
Notes: ['Integrated control in citrus fruit crops'. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP)] California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii, is a major pest of citrus worldwide. Parasitoids, such as the native species Aphytis chrysomphali, play a fundamental role in the control of the pest. Aphytis lingnanensis, C. bifasciata and E. perniciosi have been recently introduced to implement the biological control of red scale. Laboratory experiments were carried out on the larvae and pupae of the natural enemies to determine the effects of mineral oils used against citrus pests. Oil was applied to parasitoid populations at the recommended dosage (1.5%). The mortality of larvae and pupae were recorded. The mortality of the larvae and pupae of the ectoparasitoids Aphytis chrysomphali and Aphytis lingnanensis was 98%. The mortality of pupae of the endoparasitoids C. bifasciata and E. perniciosi was 85%. The lack of persistence and the absence of resistance mechanisms on target arthropods, make the use of mineral oils safer to the natural enemies than the conventional insecticides.

Domínguez, J., Vidal, E., Zarzo, M., Pina, T. & Verdú, M.J. 2003. Efficacy of the mineral oils Sunspray UltrafineR and Ivenol-GR on California red scale Aonidiella aurantii. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 119. [DomingViZa2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] Mineral oils are considered, mainly, contact insecticides. They penetrate a short distance into the main tracheal trunks and kill the insect by interference with respiration. They have been recommended against scale insects for years, with their use limited only by the risk of phytotoxicity. Sunspray Ultrafine is a paraffinic mineral oil (85% p/v), while Ivenol-GR is a white oil (72% p/v). Spray applications were conducted with Potter equipment at different volumes, 1.5% oil concentration and 0.5 bar air pressure. California red scale is a citrus pest of great economic importance, and resistance to organophosphate insecticides has been documented. Oil treatments are recommended when a biological control programme is established in the area. Oils were applied to lemons in València, Spain, infested with the following red scale stages: pupa-prepupa, moult II, young female and gravid female. Efficacy was positively correlated with the volume increase and negatively correlated with the red scale size. Sunspray Ultrafine was more effective in all aspects than Ivenol-GR.

Dorn, B., Mattiacci, L., Bellotti, A.C. & Dorn, S. 2003. Effects of a mixed species infestation on the cassava mealybug and its encyrtid parasitoids. Biological Control 27(1): 1-10. [DornMaBe2003]
Notes: The two encyrtid endo-parasitoids, Aenasius vexans Kerrich and Acerophagus coccois Smith, are biological control agents of the cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus herreni Cox and Willliams, in Latin America. Parasitoids used as biological control agents are released in agro-ecosystems in which plants are typically attacked by various herbivore species. We studied the effects of a mixed species infestation by cassava mealybug and cassava green mite, Mononychellus tanajoa Bondar, or whitefly, Aleurotrachelus socialis Bondar, on the mealybug pest and its encyrtid parasitoids. Development, distribution and reproduction of the cassava mealybug as well as the post-alighting behavior and reproduction of the two parasitoid species were analyzed in a mixed species infestation as compared to an infestation by cassava mealybug only. Results show that developmental time of cassava mealybug females was altered when an additional herbivore species was feeding on the same plant. The duration of the third larval instar was significantly shorter when cassava green mite was present. In contrast, the duration of this instar was longer when whitefly was present. Reproduction of cassava mealybug was not affected, nor was the ratio of its distribution on the adaxial and the abaxial surface of the cassava leaf. Our findings on altered developmental time of phloem feeding cassava mealybug in mixed species infestations suggest that the desiccation of leaves caused by the cell sap feeding cassava green mite accelerated mealybug development. In contrast, the interaction with the similarly phloem feeding whitefly retarded it. The post-alighting behavior of the specialist parasitoid A. vexans differed between the two mixed species infestations as compared to the infestation with the cassava mealybug only. The preference of females for the adaxial leaf surface observed in the infestation with cassava mealybug only was not found in either of the mixed species infestations. In contrast, the post-alighting behavior of the generalist parasitoid A. coccois was similar in the mixed species infestations as in the infestation by cassava mealybug only. These results indicate a more robust behavior of the generalist, but the altered behavior of the specialist remained without consequences on parasitism rate under the conditions of this study.

Dorn, B., Mattiacci, L., Bellotti, A.C. & Dorn, S. 2003a. Host specificity and daytime activity of parasitoids of the Latin American cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus herreni (Sternorrhyncha: Pseudococcidae). (In German; Summary In English). Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Entomologischen Gesellschaft 76(3/4): 293-300. [DornMaBe2003a]
Notes: The two encyrtid endoparasitoids, Aenasius vexans and Acerophagus coccois are important natural antagonists of the cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus herreni in Latin America. The cassava mealybug is a major Latin American pest of cassava (Manihot esculenta). Host specificity of the two parasitoids was determined in seven mealybug species. Results demonstrated that in the cassava agroecosystem, A. vexans is a specialist for P. herreni, while A. coccois is a generalist on the first and second trophic level. Daytime activity of the two parasitoid species was studied to estimate a release time for the biological control agents. During daytime, the two species differed in both their activity and their activity pattern. Both species increased their walking activity over the observed time period compared to standing. The host handling activity decreased for A. coccois over the course of the experiment, while it remained similar for A. vexans. In general, A. vexans was less active than A. coccois. For efficient field application, we suggest releasing A. vexans and A. coccois late in the morning during its period of increased activity.

Downie, D.A. & Gullan, P.J. 2004. Phylogenetic analysis of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) based on DNA sequences from three nuclear genes, and a review of the higher classification. Systematic Entomology 29(2): 238-259. [DownieGu2004]
Notes: Mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) are small, plant-sucking insects which comprise the second largest family of scale insects (Coccoidea). Relationships among many pseudococcid genera are poorly known and there is no stable higher level classification. Here we review previous hypotheses on relationships and classification and present the first comprehensive phylogenetic study of the Pseudococcidae based on analysis of nucleotide sequence data. We used three nuclear genes, comprising two noncontiguous fragments of elongation factor 1 (EF-1 5' and EF-1 3'), fragments of the D2 and D10 expansion regions of the large subunit ribosomal DNA gene (28S), and a region of the small subunit ribosomal DNA gene (18S). We sampled sixty-four species of mealybug belonging to thirty-five genera and representing each of the five subfamilies which had been recognized previously, and included four species of Puto (Putoidae) and one species each of Aclerda (Aclerdidae) and Icerya (Margarodidae), using Icerya as the most distant outgroup. A combined analysis of all data found three major clades of mealybugs which we equate to the subfamilies Pseudococcinae, Phenacoccinae and Rhizoecinae. Within Pseudococcinae, we recognize the tribes Pseudococcini (for Pseudococcus, Dysmicoccus, Trionymus and a few smaller genera), Planococcini (for Planococcus and possibly Planococcoides) and Trabutinini (represented by a diverse range of genera, including Amonostherium, Antonina, Balanococcus, Nipaecoccus and non-African Paracoccus), as well as the Ferrisia group (for Ferrisia and Anisococcus), some ungrouped African taxa (Grewiacoccus, Paracoccus, Paraputo and Vryburgia), Chaetococcus bambusae and Maconellicoccus. The 'legless' mealybugs Antonina and Chaetococcus were not closely related and thus we confirmed that the Sphaerococcinae as presently constituted is polyphyletic. In our analyses, the subfamily Phenacoccinae was represented by just Phenacoccus and Heliococcus. The hypogeic mealybugs of the Rhizoecinae usually formed a monophyletic group sister to all other taxa. Our molecular data also suggest that the genera Pseudococcus, Dysmicoccus, Nipaecoccus and Paracoccus are not monophyletic (probably polyphyletic) and that Phenacoccus may be paraphyletic, but further sampling of species and genes is required. We compare our phylogenetic results with published information on the intracellular endosymbionts of mealybugs and hypothesize that the subfamily Pseudococcinae may be characterized by the possession of -Proteobacteria (primary endosymbionts) capable of intracellular symbiosis with -Proteobacteria (secondary endosymbionts). Furthermore, our data suggest that the identities of the secondary endosymbionts may be useful in inferring mealybug relationships. Finally, cloning polymerase chain reaction products showed that paralogous copies of EF-1 were present in at least three taxa. Unlike the situation in Apis and Drosophila, the paralogues could not be distinguished by either the presence/absence or position of an intron.

Dula, B., Voigt, E., Szendrey, L. & Makó, S. 2004. [Protection of grapes II.] A szolo védelme II. (In Hungarian). Növényvédelem 40(5): 251-263. [DulaVoSz2004]
Notes: Species from the Coccidae and Pseudococcidae families are discussed, including Parthenolecanium, and Phenacoccus spp.

Dungan, R.J. & Kelly, D. 2003. Effect of host-tree and environmental variables on honeydew production by scale insects (Ultracoelostoma sp.) in a high elevation Nothofagus solandri forest. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 27(2): 169-177. [DunganKe2003]
Notes: Honeydew excreted by phloem-sap sucking scale insects (Ultracoelostoma sp.) living in the bark of beech (Nothofagus solandri) trees growing at a high elevation (900 m) site in the Craigieburn range of Canterbury, New Zealand, was measured over four days during 1-10 May 1996. Average standing crop of honeydew sugar was 3.1 mg m(-2), and ranged from 0.4 to 5.5 mg m(-2). Daily production of honeydew sugar ranged from 0.2 to 1.5 mg insect(-1) 24 h(-1), and 4.1 to 45.9 mg m(-2) 24 h(-1). Honeydew production varied significantly between trees, and trees with the highest mean individual rates of production (mg sugar insect(-1) 24 h(-1)) tended to be those with the highest numbers of insects per unit bark area. Air temperature averaged over the 24 hours preceding each production sample explained 65% of the variability in 3-hourly honeydew production, showing that honeydew production is controlled by environmental and host-tree variables. Using this data, together with previously published estimates of carbon uptake and seasonal variability in honeydew standing crop, it was estimated that carbon contained in honeydew is equivalent to 1.8% of net primary production of beech trees at Craigieburn. Determining the effects of environmental variables on tree and insect physiology will allow formulation of an environmentally-driven process-based model of honeydew production.

Dunkelblum, E., Zada, A., Gross, S., Fraistat, P. & Mendel, Z. 2002. Sex pheromone and analogs of the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri: synthesis and biological activity. IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 25(9): 213-220. [DunkelZaGr2002]
Notes: [IOBC/WPRS Working Group 'Use of Pheromones and Other Semiochemicals in Integrated Control'. Pheromones and other biological techniques for insect control in orchards and vineyards. Proceedings of the working group meeting, Samos, Greece, September 25-29, 2000. Publishers: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP)] The citrus mealybug, is a cosmopolitan pest and affects many crops. The female sex pheromone has been identified by Bierl-Leonhardt et al., in 1981 as (+)-1R)-cis-2,2-dimethyl-3-isopropenylcyclobutanemethanol acetate 1. Several groups including this team, have synthesized the pheromone. A number of analogs have also been prepared in order to study the structure-activity relationship. This report includes a modified synthetic route for the pheromone, preparation of some analogs and the biological activity of these compounds.

Dwivedi, S.C., Singh, S.M.K. & Katiyar, R.R. 2003. Seasonal incidence of insect-pests associated with mango crop. Annals of Plant Protection Sciences 11(1): 159-160. [DwivedSiKa2003]
Notes: Investigations were carried out during 1997-98 at Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India to monitor the seasonal incidence of insect pests of 20-year-old mango trees in relation to mean temperature and humidity. The population of mealy bug (Drosicha mangiferae) was highest (84.6) at the base of the tree trunk in February and lowest (0.58) in December. Leaf hopper (Amritodus atkinsoni) appeared in March and reached its peak (87.9/10 leaves) in June. The incidence of (Inderbella quadrinatala) ranged from 1.2 (July) to 8.6 ribbons/plant (January). Gall formation by Apsylla cistellata started in July and gradually increased during August, September and October. Fruit fly (Dacus dorsalis [Bactrocera dorsalis]) was first observed in April with 3% infestation, gradually increased in May (8.2%) and June (9.8%) and slightly declined in July (8.3%). The maggots fed on fruit pulp, resulting in premature fruit falling.

Dzhuvinov, V. & Kutinkova, H. 2003. Integrated plant protection of apple in Bulgaria. (In English; Summary In Lithuanian). Sodininkyste ir Darzininkyste 22(1): 55-61. [DzhuviKu2003]
Notes: Trials were conducted in Bulgaria during 1998-2001 in high-density plantations of 24 apple cultivars and Golden Delicious (control) to study their response to scab [Venturia inaequalis] attack and powdery mildew [Podosphaera leucotricha] and to monitor codling moth and leaf miner occurrence. The pests in the region included Laspeyresia pomonella [Cydia pomonella], Leucoptera scitella [Leucoptera malifoliella], Lithocolletis blancardella [Phyllonorycter blancardella], Lithocolletis corylifoliella [Phyllonorycter corylifoliella], Pandemis heparana, Archips rosanus, Adoxophyes reticulana [Adoxophyes orana], Hoplocampa testudinea, Anthonomus pomorum, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus] and Panonychus ulmi. Among the natural enemies of the fruit tree red spider mite (Panonychus ulmi) appearing in the orchards in the region, the most important was the predatory mite Amblyseius andersoni. Chitin synthesis inhibitors (diflubenzuron, teflubenzuron, chlorpyrifos-methyl, bensultap, pirimicarb, phosalone and paraffin oil) were used to control these pests. Mostly fungicides of the DMI group (difenoconazole, hexaconazole, kresoxim-methyl, separately or in combination with zineb) were used. Integrated plant protection of apples is based on: using cultivars practically resistant to scab and powdery mildew; using lightly toxic pesticides, but ones having a longer post-effect during the first months of the vegetation period to protect the beneficial fauna; using pheromone traps for monitoring important pests; using the pesticide of "green" and "yellow" list. Using the integrated plant protection of apple will bring the control to a modern level in terms of obtaining ecological products and achieving environment preservation in accordance with the requirements of the European standards for integrated fruit production.

Dziedzicka, A. & Karnkowski, W. 2002. [How should specimens of Diaspididae (Homoptera) be prepared for identification?] W jaki sposób prawidlowo wykonac preparaty tarczników (Homoptera: Diaspididae) do oznaczania?). (In Polish). Ochrona Roslin 46(10): 20-22. [DziedzKa2002]
Notes: Of the many insect pests imported incidentally with fruit and plant material from warmer countries, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus] is subject to compulsory notification in Poland. A number of other imports includes Selenaspidus articulatus on oranges from Cuba and Pseudaulacaspis pentagona on kiwi fruit from Greece and jasmine plants from Egypt. Properly prepared specimens of the pests aid their accurate identification; collection of the individual life-stages, their treatment and slide preparation is described in detail.

Dziedzicka, A. & Karnkowski, W. 2003. Occurrence of the bamboo scale Kuwanaspis pseudoleucaspis (Kuwana) (Homoptera, Coccoidea, Diaspididae) on bamboo plants imported into Poland. Ochrona Roslin 47(7/8): 5-7. [DziedzKa2003]
Notes: In July 2002, K. pseudoleucaspis was detected in bamboo plants imported into Poland from Italy. Its development stages are described. Its natural enemies include Encyrtidae, Chilocorus kuwanae and Telsimia sp.

Dziedzicka, A. & Karnkowski, W. 2003a. [How to identify scale insect specimens (Homoptera: Diaspididae)?] Foreign Title: W jaki sposób oznaczac tarczniki (Homoptera: Diaspididae)? (In Hungarian; Summary In English). Ochrona Roslin 47(1): 15-16. [DziedzKa2003a]
Notes: A detailed description of the male and female diaspidid scale is given and both sexes are illustrated. Instructions are given for the preparation and identification of scale insect specimens, i.e. coding of the number of lobes and segments, colour of eggs and larvae, preferred host plants and parts of plants most frequently attacked.

Eastwood, R. 2004. Successive replacement of tending ant species at aggregations of scale insects (Hemiptera: Margarodidae and Eriococcidae) on Eucalyptus in south-east Queensland. Australian Journal of Entomology 43(1): 1-4. [Eastwo2004]
Notes: Scale insects generally display enhanced survival rates in the presence of tending ants, but studies of ant and scale-insect interactions typically examine a single tending ant species. This study investigated the successive changes in tending ant species during the lifespan of two species of scale aggregations, a monophlebine margarodid and an Eriococcus sp. (Eriococcidae) on the Plunkett mallee, Eucalyptus curtisii. Scale aggregations also subject to an ant-exclusion experiment to quantify the degree to which ants increased the survival rates of both scale insect species. Tending ants assorted to two categories, dominant and secondary, with a significant bias according to the chronological age of the scale aggregation. Secondary ant species (opportunists and subordinates) tended juvenile-scale aggregations. These were replaced by a dominant species of Iridomyrmex (Dolichoderinae), which almost exclusively tended larger (mature) aggregations until the senescent stages of the infestation when secondary ant species returned. Exclusion of the primary tending Iridomyrmex ant increased mortality of both species of scale insects by 96% relative to controls.

Eizaguirre, M., Arenas, N., Lumbierres, B. & Pons, X. 2002. [Pests of Palaeococcus fuscipennis Burm (Homoptera: Margarodidae) in pines and cypresses in the parks of Lleida.] Daños de Palaeococcus fuscipennis Burm (Homoptera: Margarodidae) en pinos y cipreses de los parques de Lleida. (In Spanish; Summary In English). Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 28(2): 199-205. [EizaguArLu2002]
Notes: During the first 2 weeks of April 2001, a severe outbreak of {Palaeococcus fuscipennis} was detected on { {Pinus pinea} and {Pinus halepensis} in public (urban) parks in Lleida, Spain. At that time, some specimens of {Cupressus sempervirens} were also attacked by the pest. Results are presented of studies on the evolution of the margarodid in treated and untreated trees during the season, the differences between the infestation of {P. pinea} and {P. halepensis}, and the presence of natural enemies (predators).

Eke, I. 2002. Current status and history of biological control in Hungary. ix-xiii In: Melika, G. & Thuróczy, C. (Eds.), Parasitic Wasps: Evolution, Systematics, Biodiversity and Biological Control. Agroinform, Budapest. xx + 480 pp. [Eke2002]
Notes: The biological control of mulberry scale (Pseudaulacaspis pentagona) was discussed. Quadraspidiotus perniciosus was mentioned as host for Encarsia perniciosi in experimental trials in 1964.

El-Hakim, A.M., Hanna, S.K. & Mosallam, A.M.Z. 2003. Ecological studies on some important insect pests of olive trees in El-Fayoum Governorate, Egypt. (In English; Summary In Arabic). Egyptian Journal of Agricultural Research 81(2): 563-571. [ElHakiHaMo2003]
Notes: The inter-relationships between the population density of both Leucaspis riccae and Palpita unionalis on olive trees in El-Fayoum Governorate, Egypt, and three climatic factors (temperature, relative humidity and sunshine hours) were studied in 1999 and 2000. The population of L. riccae had four peaks and was insignificantly correlated with the three climatic factors during both years of investigation. However, the relative humidity significantly affected the population fluctuations of P. unionalis larvae which recorded two and three peaks during 1999 and 2000, respectively. The highest mean numbers of larvae were recorded during spring months, while the lowest ones were recorded during summer months throughout the two years.

El Kaoutaria, I., Guirroub, Z., Chemseddinea, M. & Boumezzougha, A. 2004. [The role of Aphytis melinus (DeBach) in biological control of Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) in Moroccan citrus orchards.] Rôle d'Aphytis melinus (DeBach) dans le contrôle naturel d'Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) en verger d'agrumes au Maroc. (In French; Summary In English). Fruits 59: 169-179. [ElKaouGuCh2004]
Notes: In Morocco, the parasitoid A. melinus is the most effective agent of biological control against the propagation of A. aurantii or California red scale, a very harmful insect to Moroccan citrus-fruit cultivation. Now, this hymenopteran is naturally present in the Tadla area, an important region for citrus cultivation in the centre of Morocco (325 295 ha). Thus, the integrated protection of citrus fruits against A. aurantii could constitute a possibility of a promising control compared with methodical chemical control. Our study was a precondition to the implementation of an integrated control strategy in citrus orchards in the Tadla area by the monitoring of A. aurantii and its principal parasite, A. melinus. Our experiments were carried out during the years 2000 and 2001 in an untreated orchard, made up of a mixture of citrus fruit varieties. The evolution of the A. aurantii population dynamic and of A. melinus was followed, and the abundance periods of the pest receptive stages coinciding with the activity periods of its parasitoid were located. In the Tadla area, the California red scale presented four generations per annum, a spring generation (April-May), a summer generation (June-July) and two autumnal generations (October and November-December). Pest stages that could be parasitised by A. melinus were observed throughout the year. Two periods (spring and autumnal) particularly suitable for the parasitoid female spawning were observed. A. melinus populations appeared to be significant from the very start of the autumn and until the end of the following spring. The release of A. melinus carried out during the autumn, winter and spring could thus be effective.

Elliott, H.J., Bashford, R., Jarman, S.J. & Neyland, M.G. 2002. Foliage insect diversity in dry eucalypt forests in eastern Tasmania. Papers and Proceedings, Royal Society of Tasmania 136: 17-34. [ElliotBaJa2002]
Notes: Species numbers and composition of the insect fauna occurring on trees and shrubs were studied in dry eucalypt forests in eastern Tasmania over nine years. In all, 1164 named and putative species representing 17 orders and 157 families were collected. The bulk of the species belonged to the orders Coleoptera (28%), Hymenoptera (25%), Hemiptera (18%), Lepidoptera (14%) and Diptera (10%). Of the species collected, 388 - about one-third - were identified at least to genus or species level. These included 21 named species not previously listed in the Tasmanian insect fauna and 90 undescribed species. A list of 22 host plants for 171 insect species was compiled from records of 132 insect species observed feeding during the study and from previous records of insect/host plant associations for 39 insect species found on the study plots. Most insects were feeding on eucalypts (127 insect species) and acacias (38 species). The most widely distributed and commonly collected species includes Eriococcus coriaceous (Hemiptera: Eriococcidae).

Empresa de Assistência Técnica e Extensão Rural do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul 2003. (In Portuguese). [Recommendations for management of fungal diseases and insect pests of grapes.] EMATER/RS, Porto Alegre, Brazil. 67 pp. [EmpresAsTe2003]
Notes: [Original title: Recomendações para o manejo das doenças fúngicas e insetos pragas da videira.] Methods of control of fungal diseases on grapes are listed, including evasion, exclusion, eradication, regulation, resistant varieties, and protection and therapy using fungicides. Notes are given on the use of phosphorus fertilizers for the control of mildew, winter treatments and the use of copper. The main arthropod pests of grapes in Brazil are the margarodid Eurhizococcus brasiliensis, the phylloxerid Daktulosphaira vitifoliae [Viteus vitifoliae], the coccids Parthenolecanium persicae, the margarodid Icerya schrottkyi, diaspidids, Aethalion reticulatum, the tarsonemid Polyphagotarsonemus latus, Tetranychus urticae, chrysomelids, the tephritid Anastrepha fraterculus, wasps and bees, and Formicidae. Brief notes are given on the control of each of these taxa.

European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. 2004. Unaspis citri. Bulletin OEPP 34(2): 299-301. [EMPPO2004]
Notes: Unaspis citri is a serious pest widely distributed on citrus throughout the main citrus-growing areas of the world. It is often detected on consignments of citrus fruits in international trade. It has been reported to attack plants of 12 different genera belonging to 9 families, but it seems to prefer Rutaceae. Other hosts include: Annona muricata, Musa paradisiaca, Cocos nucifera, Psidium guajava, Ananas comosus, Artocarpus heterophyllus and Tillandsia usneoides. The origin of U. citri is in South-East Asia and it is now present in Australia, North, Central and South America, Pacific Islands, Egypt, Syria and China. Topics covered include synonymy, taxonomic position, detection, identification, and comparisons to similar species.

European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. 2004c. Citrus. Bulletin OEPP 34(1): 43-56. [EMPPO2004c]
Notes: The principal citrus pests considered include armoured scales. Due to their great reproductive capacity, survival ability, and the difficulty of insecticide control, armoured scale insects (Diaspididae) are highly destructive pests of citrus. Apart from the newly hatched larvae and the adults which are mobile, all other stages are sessile, feeding on shoots, leaves or fruits. Sap sucking results in direct damage in the form of defoliation. Indirect damage includes depreciation of fruits, due to reduced size, green spots on the mature fruit at places where the scales were fixed, remains of scales. Aonidiella aurantii, Aspidiotus nerii and Lepidosaphes beckii are discussed in some detail. Among soft scales (Coccidae), the black scale Saissetia oleae is the most damaging, while the citrus brown soft scale Coccus hesperidum only causes occasional problems. Direct damage is caused by feeding which restricts the flow of assimilates to the fruits. The scales also secrete honeydew, on which sooty mould develops, reducing the vigour of the tree, causing defoliation, and suppressing flowering and fruiting on affected trees. S. oleae overwinters as larvae. Under Mediterranean conditions, there are two generations per year but this varies with climatic conditions. Other species discussed are Pseudococcus citri, Icerya purchasi and Unaspis yanonensis.

Fallahzadeh, M., Hesami, S. & Moghaddam, M. 2002. The first record of Coccophagus pseudococci (Hym.: Aphelinidae) parasitoid of mealybugs (Hom.: Pseudococcidae) in Iran. (In English; Summary In Persian). Journal of Entomological Society of Iran 22(1): Pe81-Pe82. [FallahHeMo2002]
Notes: During a natural enemies study of Nipaecoccus viridis on citrus and Maconellicoccus hirsutus on mulberry in Jahrom, Fars province, Iran throughout 2001-02, several parasitoids were collected and further identified. Coccophagus pseudococci was reported for the first time in Iran.

Farias, A.R.N. 2002. [Pests of cassava.] Pragas da mandioca. (In Portuguese). 169-189 In: Otsubo, A.A., Mercante, F.M. & Souza Martins, C. de (Eds.), Aspectos do cultivo da mandioca em Mato Grosso do Sul, I e II seminários sobre a cultura da mandioca em Mato Grosso do Sul. Embrapa Agropecuária Oeste, Dourados, Brazil. [Farias2002]
Notes: The main arthropod pests of cassava in Brazil are Erinnyis ello, Mononychellus tanajoa, Tetranychus urticae, Vatiga illudens, Aleyrodidae and Pseudococcidae. These taxa are listed, with notes on control methods.

Fassotte, C. 2003. [The oystershell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi L.) reappears in integrated fruit cultivation.] De kommaschildluis (Lepidosaphes ulmi L.) duikt opnieuw op in de geïntegreerde fruitteelt.) (In Dutch). Fruitteelt Nieuws 16(10): 24-29. [Fassot2003]
Notes: The life cycle, natural enemies, control methods, and monitoring of insect populations in pome fruit orchards in Belgium are described.

Fassotte, C. 2003a. [Oystershell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi L.), a resurgent pest in integrated fruit crops.] La cochenille virgule (Lepidosaphes ulmi L.), un ravageur résurgent en culture fruitière intégrée. (In French). Fruit Belge 71(502): 60-67. [Fassot2003a]
Notes: Notes are given on the systematics, importance, damage and biology of Lepidosaphes ulmi. Natural enemies are discussed, as well as cultural, biological, and chemical control methods.

Feng, J.N., Wang, P.M., Li, L.M. & Chou, I. 2004. [Two new species of the Family Diaspididae (Homoptera: Diaspidoidea) from China. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Entomotaxonomia 26(1): 19-22. [FengWaLi2004]
Notes: Two new species of the Family Diaspididae from China are described, i.e. Pinnaspis pseudotuberculatus sp. nov. from Abutilon theophrasti and Duplachionaspis yunnanensis sp. nov. from Ficus carica. All of the type specimens are deposited in the Entomological Museum of the Northwest Sci-Tech University of Agriculture and Forestry.

Ferreira, C.A., Ferreira, R.L.C., Santos, D.C. dos, Santos, M.V.F. dos, Silva, J.A.A. da, Lira, M. de A. & Molica, S.G. 2003. [Use of multivariate techniques in genetic divergence evaluation among cactus forage (Opuntia ficus-indica Mill.) clones.] (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Revista Brasileira de Zoologia 32(6): 1560-1568. [FerreiFeSa2003]
Notes: [Original title: Foreign Title: Utilização de técnicas multivariadas na avaliação da divergência genética entre clones de palma forrageira (Opuntia ficus-indica Mill.] The phenetic divergence among 19 clones of cactus forage was evaluated in Caruaru, Pernambuco, Brazil using multivariate techniques. The infestation percentage by cochineal was considered a characteristic of susceptible plants.

Ferrero, D.M. & Pellizzari, G. 2002. Contribution to the knowledge of the scale insects (Hemiptera Coccoidea) from the Aosta Valley (Italy). Bollettino di Zoologia Agraria e di Bachicoltura (Milano) 34(3): 347-360. [FerrerPe2002]
Notes: The paper presents the results of a survey on the scale insect fauna carried out over different years in the Alpine Aosta Valley (Italy). A total of 54 species have been collected in this Italian region. Of these, 7 are new for the Italian fauna: Neomargarodes festucae, Chaetococcus sulci, Peliococcus marrubii, Rhodania porifera, Eriococcus placidus [Acanthococcus placida], Rhizopulvinaria saxatilis and R. spinifera. Two other species previously recorded from the Aosta Valley, Rhizoecus caesii and Mirococcopsis nagyi, proved their pertinence, respectively, to Rhizoecus pratensis and Volvicoccus volvifer. The opportunity is taken to synonymize Antoninella inaudita syn. nov. with Antoninella parkeri comb. nov. The peculiar climate of the Aosta Valley allows the establishment of several thermophilous or xerophilous species, some of which are considered rare species, such as Neomargarodes festucae, Antoninella parkeri, Chaetococcus sulci, Rhizoecus albidus, Rhodania porifera, Peliococcus marrubii, Volvicoccus volvifer, Cerococcus cycliger, Rhizopulvinaria artemisiae, Rhizopulvinaria spinifera and Quadraspidiotus labiatarum [Diaspidiotus labiatarum].

Fiedler, Z. 2003. [Trials of integrated pest control in the protection of ornamentals in Poznan Palm House.] (In Polish). Ochrona Roslin 47(6): 12-13. [Fiedle2003]
Notes: Principles of integrated pest control are briefly stated and the experience of the system, gained in the Poznan Palm House, is described. During regular inspections of the House, conducted in 2001, the following pests were found most frequently: Trialeurodes vaporariorum, Frankliniella occidentalis, Bradysia paupera, Coccus hesperidium [Coccus hesperidum], Tetranychus urticae, T. cinnabarinus, Rhodobrum porosum, Microlophium evansi [Microlophium carnosum]. Of those, Trialeurodes vaporariorum caused most damage and Macrolophus caliginosus and Verticillium lecanii were introduced as biological control agents. The two agents are described together with their effect on the pest, and pest counts before and after the introduction of the control are presented in tables.

Field, L.M., Lyko, F., Mandrioli, M. & Prantera, G. 2004. DNA methylation in insects. Insect Molecular Biology 13(2): 109-115. [FieldLyMa2004]
Notes: Cytosine DNA methylation has been demonstrated in numerous eukaryotic organisms and has been shown to play an important role in human disease. The function of DNA methylation has been studied extensively in vertebrates, but establishing its primary role has proved difficult and controversial. Analysing methylation in insects has indicated an apparent functional diversity that seems to argue against a strict functional conservation. To investigate this hypothesis, we here assess the data reported in four different insect species in which DNA methylation has been analysed more thoroughly: the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, the cabbage moth Mamestra brassicae, the peach-potato aphid Myzus persicae and the mealybug Planococcus citri.

Flanagan, P.T. 2003. Efficacy of a systemic insecticide in reducing populations of black pineleaf scale (Nuculaspis californica). Journal of Arboriculture 29(5): 303-305. [Flanag2003]
Notes: In 2001, 66 ponderosa pines (Pinus ponderosa) infested with black pineleaf scale (Nuculaspis californica) near Leavenworth, Washington, U.S., were selected for an insecticide trial. Twenty-two pines were injected with a systemic insecticide in October 2001; in March 2002, an additional 22 pines were similarly injected. The remaining 22 pines served as a control. Branches were collected in October 2002, and scale density per meter of foliage was compared among the fall treatment, spring treatment, and control trees. Both spring and fall treatments significantly reduced scale densities on 2002 and 2001 foliage. The spring treatment was more effective than the fall treatment.

Flores Flores, V. 2002a. [Physical/chemical characterization of zones producing the cochineal Dactylopius coccus Costa in departments of the Andean Trapecio Huancavelica, Ayacucho and Apurimac, Peru.] (In Spanish). 37-45 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [Flores2002a]
Notes: [Original title of paper: Caracterización físico-químico de zonas productoras de cochinilla Dactylopius coccus Costa en departamentos del trapecio Andino: Huancavelica, Ayacucho y Apurimac, Perú; Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.]

Flores Flores, V.I. 2002. Physical-chemical characterization of cochineal Dactylopius coccus Costa producer areas in the Andean Trapeze Bar Departments: Huancavelica, Ayacucho and Apurimac, Peru. CACTUSNET NEWSLETTER (FAO International Technical Cooperation on Cactus) No. 7: 16-20. [Flores2002]
Notes: The most favorable soils for the establishment of cactus pear plantations are those of loamy and clayish-oozy texture, with pH neutral to lightly neutral and a capacity of cationic exchange half to high. These soils should contain high to very high calcium to form an important part of the chemical constitution of cladodes. The production areas with the highest percentage values of EX and FR cochineal are located in the highest altitudes.

Foldi, I. 2003. [The scale insects of Corsica (Hemiptera, Coccoidea).] Les cochenilles de Corse (Hemiptera, Coccoidea). (In French; Summary In English). Bulletin de la Societe Entomologique de France 108(2): 147-156. [Foldi2003]
Notes: The species diversity and composition of scale insect populations, covering all ecosystems from littoral to high mountains, is analysed. The total number of species currently known is 99, including 11 endemic species and 17 new records for Corsica. Each species record is accompanied by biological and biogeographical data. New records for Corsica are Atrococcus melanovirens, A. palidinus, Diaspidiotus bavaricus, D. lenticularis, Eriococcus cistacearum, E. helichrysi, Hemiberlesia lataniae, Heterococcus biporus, Lichtensia viburni, Nidularia pulvinata, Phenacoccus asphodeli, P. graminicola, Planchonia arabidis, Planococcus ficus, P. vovae, Rhizoecus albidus and Rhizopulvinaria maritima.

Foldi, I. 2003a. [Scale insects: Part 1.] Les cochenilles: 1ère Partie. (In French). Insectes No. 129: 3-7. [Foldi2003a]
Notes: Scale insects are formidable enemies of agricultural crops. This report reviews the place of scales in the world of insects, a general description, illustrations, means of reproduction and defense. Species mentioned include Chionaspis salicis, Kuwania sp., Matsucoccus sp., Neosteingelia texana, Parlatoria sp., Pulvinaria sp., Saccharicoccus sacchari and Xylococcus sp.

Foldi, I. 2003b. [Scale insects: Part 2.] Les cochenilles: 2ère Partie. (In French). Insectes No. 130: 27-30. [Foldi2003b]
Notes: These formidable insects have been exploited for dye materials and nourishment for 3000 years. Examples are given from the Middle East, Mexico, the Mediterranean, Poland and China. Species mentioned include Antonina graminis, Dactylopius austrinus, D. ceylonicus, D. coccus, D. opuntiae, Dysmicoccus brevipes, Heliococcus bohemicus, Kermes vermilio, Llaveia axin, Neopulvinaria innumerabilis, Parthenolecanium corni, Phenacoccus aceris, Planococcus citri, Pulvinaria vitis and Trabutina mannipara.

Foldi, I. 2003c. [Some aspects of the eco-ethology of scale insects (Hemiptera, Sternorhyncha, Coccoidea).] Quelques aspects de l'éco-éthologie des Cochenilles (Hemiptera, Sternorhyncha, Coccoidea). (In French). 265-275 In: Fabre, J.H. (Ed.), Un Autre Regard sur l'Insecte. In Actes du Colloque International sur l'Entomologie, 18-19 octobre 2002, Micropolis, la Cité des insectes. Conseil General de l'Aveyron, . [Foldi2003c]
Notes: Topics discussed include scale-host relationships, defense strategies, trophobiosis, endosymbionts, and phylogeny and evolution. Species mentioned include Dactylopius coccus, Hippeococcus sp., Kermes ilicis, K. roboris, K. vermilio, Margarodes vitis, Orthezia urticae, Parthenolecanium corni, Phenacoccus piceae, Physokermes hemicryphus and P. piceae.

Foldi, I. & Van Harten, A. 2004. Scale insects of the family Margarodidae in Yemen (Hemiptera, Coccoidea). (In English; Summary In French). Bulletin de la Societe Entomologique de France 109(1): 79-82. [FoldiVa2004]
Notes: Scale insects belonging to the family Margarodidae were studied in Yemen as part of an inventory of the arthropod diversity, particularly of arthropod crop pests and their real or potential natural enemies. At least nine species of margarodids were recorded, six at specific level and three or more, identified only at generic level. Of those, Icerya, Pseudaspidoproctus and Neomargarodes represent a potential danger to date palm, citrus, grapevine and other cultivated plants. Data are given on the biology, host plant distribution in Yemen, and economic importance of the recorded species.

Follett, P.A. 2004. Generic vapor heat treatments to control Maconellicoccus hirsutus(Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 97(4): 1263-1268. [Follet2004]
Notes: Vapor heat treatments were developed against life stages of the mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Treatments tested were 47 degrees C for 5-50 min in 5-min increments and 49 degrees C for 3, 5, 8, 10, and 12 min. All tests were conducted with mixed age M. hirsutus on Chinese pea, Pisum sativum L. Treatment at 47 degrees C required 45 min to kill all M. hirsutus, whereas treatment at 49degreesC required 10 min. The adult female and nymphal stages were the most heat tolerant at 47 degrees C, but the egg stage was the most heat tolerant at 49 degrees C. Use of the vapor heat treatments on other commodities will require achieving or exceeding the proper temperature and duration at all locations on the host where M. hirsutus may reside.

Forrester, J.A., McGee, G.G. & Mitchell, M.J. 2003. Effects of beech bark disease on aboveground biomass and species composition in a mature northern hardwood forest, 1985 to 2000. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 130(2): 70-78. [ForresMcMi2003]
Notes: We examined changes in species composition and aboveground biomass of a maturing, Adirondack northern hardwood forest in New York, USA, over a 15-year period in order to assess the potential effects of beech bark disease, which is caused by a complex of beech scale, Cryptococcus fagisuga and fungi Nectria spp. on Fagus grandifolia, on the structure and nutrient cycling processes of the stand. Aboveground biomass of living and dead stems, and annual litter production were estimated in 1985 and 2000 within a 1.96 ha area using total stem inventories (more than or equal to 5 cm dbh). A comparison of species composition and biomass of the forest, as well as mortality and growth rates between the two sampling years are presented. The aboveground biomass of living stems decreased from 209.8 tonnes ha-1 in 1985 to 195.7 tonnes ha-1 in 2000. Acer rubrum was the only species to increase in biomass. Fagus grandifolia and Acer saccharumwere the most important species in 1985 and 2000, although F. grandifolia increased in importance while A. saccharum decreased in importance during this time. Large stems of F. grandifolia experienced high mortality rates, but were balanced by ingrowth of smaller stems. In 2000, 58% of F. grandifolia exhibited no to minor signs or symptoms of beech bark disease, while 28 and 13% displayed moderate and high signs of infection, respectively. Ninety-nine percent of the uninfected stems were <15 cm dbh. Although total aboveground biomass decreased during the 15-yr period, annual litter production remained constant. Furthermore, the increase in F. grandifolia importance value did not substantially alter the lignin content of litter. We conclude that the presence of BBD is hastening the onset of uneven-aged conditions in this second-growth stand but may not lead to large changes in forest nutrient cycling processes based on the lack of change in total lignin content of the leaf litter layer. Currently it appears the canopy will continue to be dominated by shade tolerant species, although the importance of F. grandifolia and A. saccharum are changing especially with respect to the relative importance of different size classes.

Fowler, S.V. 2004. Biological control of an exotic scale, Orthezia insignis Browne (Homoptera: Ortheziidae), saves the endemic gumwood tree, Commidendrum robustum (Roxb.) DC. (Asteraceae) on the island of St. Helena. Biological Control 29(3): 367-374. [Fowler2004]
Notes: St. Helena is a small South Atlantic island with a highly degraded, but internationally significant, terrestrial flora. The 2500 remaining gumwoods, Commidendrum robustum, are an important part of this remnant flora. In 1991, a South American scale insect, Orthezia insignis, was identified attacking the gumwood trees. By 1993, severe infestations had killed over 100 trees. If the number of dead trees had continued to increase exponentially, all 2500 trees would have died by 1995. This outcome was likely given abundant alternative host plants, and lack of natural enemies of O. insignis. Host range tests showed that the other members of the endemic genus Commidendrum were also at risk. The coccinellid predator, Hyperaspis pantherina, was released on St. Helena in 1993. H. pantherina numbers increased from 1994, coinciding with a 30x decrease in scale numbers. Scale outbreaks have not been reported on St. Helena since 1995, and culturing of H. pantherina was discontinued because insufficient O. insignis prey could be found in the field. Extensive blackening from sooty molds on the surviving trees in 1995 suggested that the predator was effective just in time to prevent death of most trees. H. pantherina appears to have saved the field population of a rare endemic plant from extinction.

Franco R., A., Cárdenas M., R., Montoya, E. C. & Zenner de Polanía, I. 2003. Ants associated with sucking insects in the aerial part of the coffee tree. Revista Colombiana de Entomología 29(1): 95-105. [FrancoCaMo2003]
Notes: Ants are found isolated from or associated with other insects directly or indirectly affecting the coffee plants. In order to clarify some of these associations, studies were conducted in <3-year-old coffee plantations. Ants and associated homopteran insects were collected and identified, the relationships between them were described. A field guide for identification of the formicids was elaborated. The study was carried out in seven experimental substations of Cenicafé (Colombia). The data obtained from the field records were analysed using descriptive statistics. A total of 114 different associations were recognized; 30 ants species of the Formicinae, Myrmicinae, Dolichoderinae and Ponerinae subfamilies associated with 12 homopteran of the Coccidae, Pseudococcidae, Aphididae, Ortheziidae, Aethalionidae and Membracidae families were found. The sucking insects most common on the coffee plants were: Coccus viridis, Saissetia coffeae, Planococcus citri, Toxoptera aurantii and Orthezia sp. Three types of relationships were identified: mutualism (95.11%), commensalism (4.57%) and depredation (0.32%). The highest number of ants and associated sucking species were registered at the Supia (Caldas) and Libano (Tolima) sites. The ants indirectly protect the homopteran colonies against natural enemy attack through cleaning and covers, however, they do not exercise a direct action against fungi, parasites and predators that act as natural control agents and regulate the homopteran population.

Franco, J.C., Suma, P., Borges da Silva, E. & Mendel, Z. 2003. Management strategies of mealybug pests of citrus in Mediterranean countries. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): p. 137. [FrancoSuBo2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] Six mealybug species are reported as citrus pests in the Mediterranean basin: the citrus mealybug Planococcus citri, the citriculus mealybug Pseudococcus cryptus, the long-tailed mealybug Pseudococcus longispinus, the citrophilus mealybug Pseudococcus calceolariae, the obscure mealybug Pseudococcus viburni and the spherical mealybug Nipaecoccus viridis. Some of these species were recently introduced in the region and are still expanding their distribution, e.g., N. viridis. Mealybugs are usually occasional or potential pests of citrus. However, some species are considered key pests in certain situations. Pest status may change with pest management systems and/or other ecological alterations. Management strategies of mealybug populations in citrus orchards have been generally based on biological control (mostly as classical biological control and to a lesser extent as augmentative releases). However, chemical controls are widely used mainly due to low adaptation of the principal natural enemies to the climatic conditions in the Mediterranean. The application of pheromones is still restricted to the monitoring of the citrus mealybug, whose sex pheromone is commercially available. Mass trapping and mating disruption should be considered for use in IPM programmes as an alternative to the supplementary chemical control. Enhancement of biological control through the management of ant populations is another possible control measure. The management strategies of mealybug pests of citrus and the possible levels of integration of different tactics based on the pest status are discussed.

Furniss, M.M. 2004. Observations on an introduced bud scale, Physokermes hemicryphus (Homoptera: Coccidae), infesting Norway spruce in Idaho. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34(6): 1348-1352. [Furnis2004]
Notes: An introduced bud scale on Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst. (Pinaceae)) in Idaho, formerly thought to be Physokermes piceae Schrank (Homoptera: Coccidae), is identified as Physokermes hemicryphus (Dalman). Secondary lateral branches of infested Norway spruce become pendent as a result of growing abnormally in length relative to diameter. The scale reproduces by parthenogenesis in North America; no male is known there. Mature females in situ resemble a branch bud. An average of 2.2 females occurred per infested node. They grew larger in late May, at which time they protruded visibly from beneath branch bud scales of the previous year and became immersed in their secreted honeydew. At maturity, females contained a prolific number of eggs (290-858). The eggs hatched into nymphs within the rigid exoskeleton of the dead female in late June. Nymphs emerged during July and migrated distally along a branch. They overwintered as second (final) instars attached to needles or beneath bud scales at the branch node from which the current-year terminal emanated. Four species of hymenopterous parasites were reared from adult scales. Of these, Americencyrtus sp. (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) was most abundant. It parasitized a majority of first instar nymphs but allowed them to develop to maturity the following spring before destroying their embryonic eggs and emerging in synchrony with appearance of nymphs of unparasitized females.

Fusu, L. & Popescu, I.E. 2003. New contributions to the study of Romanian encyrtid wasp (Hymenoptera, Encyrtidae) fauna. Analele Stiintifice ale Universitatii "Al I Cuza" din Iasi. (Serie Noua) Sectiunea I Biologie Animala 159: 87-93. [FusuPo2003]
Notes: [http://internt.nhm.ac.uk/perthMedia/chalcidoids/pdf/FusuPo2003.pdf] 15 Encyrtid wasps are presented. Hosts include Ceroplastes floridensis, Drepanococcus cajani, Eriococcus greeni, Eriopeltis festucae, E. lichtensteini, Eulecanium tiliae, Kermes quercus, K. roboris, Lecanopsis formicarum, Luzulaspis luzulae, Parafairmairia sp., Parthenolecanium corni, P. fletcheri, P. persicae, P. pomeranicum, P. rufulum, Pulvinaria vitis, Rhizococcus agropyri, Rhodocochus (Rhodococcus?) perornatus, Saissetia oleae and Sphaerolecanium prunastri.

Fusu, L., Andriescu, I. & Popescu, I. 2002. Contributions to the study of Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea) from the David's Valley Meadows Reserve. 95-101 In: Memoriam 'Professor Dr. Doc. Vasile Gh. Radu'. Babes-Bolyai University, Dept. of Zoology, Presa Universitaria, Clujana, Romania. [FusuAnPo2002]
Notes: [http://internt.nhm.ac.uk/perthMedia/chalcidoids/pdf/FusuAnPo2002.pdf.] This article analyzes 28 species of Encyrtidae found in David's Meadows Reserve. The known hosts include Acanthococcus obscurus, Aclerda subterranea, Chaetococcus phragmitis, Coccus hesperidum, Eriopeltis festucae, Heterococcus pulverarius, Lecanopsis formicarum, Luzulaspis frontalis, Parafarmairia sp., Parthenolecanium corni, Sphaerolecanium prunastri and Trionymus perrisii.

Gaimari, S.D. & Raspi, A. 2002. The species of Leucopis, subgenus Leucopella Malloch (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae), from northeastern Africa and Yemen. African Entomology 10(2): 241-264. [GaimarRa2002]
Notes: The chamaemyiid subgenus Leucopis (Leucopella) Malloch differs from all other Leucopinae in the presence of one to several small setae along the posterior edge of the anepisternum. As far as was known previously, members of this subgenus were larval predators attacking mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), but current evidence suggests they attack other coccoids as well.

Gantner, M., Golan, K. & Gawlowska, J. 2003. Effectiveness of action of plant protection products containing paraffin oil in controlling the European fruit lecanium on hazel. Ochrona Roslin 47(4): 12-13. [GantneGoGa2003]
Notes: Of a number of paraffin oil products tested against Parthenolecanium corni on hazelnut in Poland in 2000-2002, Promanal 60 EC at 2 litres/100 litres water was the most effective, reducing the larval population by 80% on average.

Gantner, M., Jaskiewicz, B. & Golan, K. 2004. Occurrence of Parthenolecanium corni (Bouché) on 18 cultivars of hazelnut. (In English; Summary In Polish). Folia Horticulturae 16(1): 95-100. [GantneJaGo2004]
Notes: The susceptibility of 18 hazelnut cultivars to P. corni was determined in a field experiment conducted in Poland during 2000-02. Alongside this, the efficacy of Promanal 60 EC, applied at 2 litres/100 litres water during the early spring in controlling the pest was determined. Nottingham recorded the lowest, whereas Negrett recorded the highest number of P. corni larvae (22.2 and 153.9, respectively). Early spring application of Promanal 60 EC reduced the number of P. corni by 80%.

García-Gil de Muñoz, F., Lanz Mendoza, H., Hernández Martínez, S., Del Río Dueñas, I. & Hernández-Hernández, F. 2002. [Identifying and describing the coagulation activity and prophenoloxidase system in Dactylopius coccus (Homoptera).] Identificación y descripción de las actividades de coagulación y sistem de la profenoloxidasa en Dactylopius coccus (Homoptera). (In Spanish). 73-74 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [GarciaLaHe2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.]

Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) 2003. 'Integrated control in citrus fruit crops'. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): xii + 225 pp. [Garcia2003]
Notes: [Conference proceedings: held in Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002 Published by International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP), Dijon, France.] These proceedings contain 26 papers and 15 posters on the integrated control of pests of citrus fruit crops, specifically on citrus leaf miner (Phyllocnistis citrella) and Mediterranean fruit fly (medfly; Ceratitis capitata) and their control measures (using parasitoids, nematodes or fungi, insect growth regulators, and traps); on coccid scales (including Aonidiella aurantii and Planococcus citri), their parasitoids, population dynamics and sensitivity to mineral oil; on thrips, and their integrated pest management strategy and Thrips flavus incidence; on mites, their population dynamics and control; and on the identification and sampling of beneficial organisms. Numerous papers include scale information.

Gardener, G.C. 2002. Persistence and Spread of Cryptococcus fagisuga, the Initiating Agent in Beech Bark Disease (Fagus grandifolia). State University of New York, Albany, . 132 pp. [Garden2002]
Notes: [Ph.D. Thesis; George Robinson, Advisor.] Pathogens and parasites play important roles in ecological communities and their influence is meaningful when they represent a newly arrived invader. At geographic scales, invading tree pests have caused major disruptions of terrestrial ecosystems. The bark disease of American beech (Fagus grandifolia Ehrl.) is an example of a disease invasion that has had a major impact on forest composition throughout Northeastern, North America in the past 50 years. The combined infestation of the European beech scale insect Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind. and the subsequent invasion of fungi (Nectria spp.) have substantially altered the structure of American beech populations. Because the scale insect must precede the fungus, it is the key component of disease spread. Despite this, there is little ecological research in North America on the beech scale insect. I examined the population and local dispersal dynamics of the beech scale insect on American beech populations in continuous forest inventory plots within the Edmund Niles Huyck Preserve in Eastern New York State. Fecundity and dispersal behavior were examined on the basis of insect population density on host trees. Weekly sampling was performed to determine fecundity and trap cards were used to determine percent wind dispersal. Outer bark cores were also taken to assess host resource quality. Range maps of the insect's dispersal were re-interpreted, using demographic patterns, to model the diffusive spread of the beech scale insect. Results indicate that density of infestation has no measurable effect on scale fecundity or dispersal and that quality of host resources may play a large role in determining the level of scale insect infestation for the American beech. Growth rate, measured as the increase in density of scale colonies and transmission frequency, measured as probability of infection, indicate that there is little resistance to local dispersal. Geographic dispersal does fit a diffusion model, however estimated velocity was less than expected, and leads to a prediction of a two stage invasion sequence in the northern range of American beech, with slower expansion to the south.

Gary, R.E. & Foster, W.A. 2004. Anopheles gambiae feeding and survival on honeydew and extra-floral nectar of peridomestic plants. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 18(2): 102-107. [GaryFo2004]
Notes: It is widely believed that the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae Giles (Diptera: Culicidae) rarely or never feeds on sugar in nature. If so, the need for supplemental blood-feeding may be increased and this would help to explain why it is such an efficient malaria vector. Nonetheless, both sexes of this mosquito species readily imbibe and digest sugar solutions, and sugar is a staple of laboratory colonies. In this study, we investigated whether An. gambiae will feed on the extra-floral nectar of three common peridomestic plants in Africa, and on honeydew of the mealybug Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni-Tozetti) (Hemiptera: Homoptera: Pseudococcidae), and how this affects survivorship. We found that both males and females of An. gambiae provided with vegetative parts of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) survived as well ((x) over bar = 26.3 and 19.2 days, respectively) as they did on 50% sucrose solution ((x) over bar = 29.7 and 24.3 days, respectively) and much longer than they did on water alone ((x) over bar = 1.8 days, both sexes). Females provided with mealybug honeydew also lived substantially longer ((x) over bar = 16.5 days) than those on water alone. Anthrone tests of females after one night of exposure to these potential energy sources confirmed that they obtained fructose from cassava, from mealybug honeydew, and from non-flowering castorbean, but not from lantana or from castorbean lacking its petiolar nectaries.

Gaskin, R.E., Bradley, S.J., Manktelow, D.W.L. & Zabkiewicz, J.A. 2002. Enhancement of plant- and petroleum-derived spray oils with alkylsilicone surfactants. 56-61 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [GaskinBrMa2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Pseudococcus viburni (=P. affinis) and P. longispinus are discussed in the section on the effect of modified oil adjuvants on the activity of insecticides. Hemiberlesia sp. is also mentioned.

Gautam, R.D. 2003. Fumigation of fresh agricultural produce with magnesium phosphide for quarantine security. Indian Journal of Entomology 65(2): 193-201. [Gautam2003]
Notes: In an experiment, conducted at the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute Field Demonstration Center in Grenada, the use of magnesium phosphide at 5 g/barrel (100 x 58 cm) with the exposure period of 10-24 h was found to be the most effective in providing 100% mortality to all the stages of pink mealy bug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, besides a dozen of other associated insect species with the fumigated commodities under prevailing conditions of 26-31 deg C. Interestingly, no phytotoxicity after fumigation with magnesium phosphide was observed on 100 fresh agricultural produce, except for ginger lily [Alpinia purpurata] flowers. The shelf-life of these produce (including cut flowers, fresh fruits, vegetables, salad and seasonings, and planting materials) and other quality parameters like taste, colouration and flavour of the fruits were also not affected.

Gautam, R.D. & Cooper, B. 2003. Insecticidal dip of some tropical cut flowers for quarantine security against pink hibiscus mealy bug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus. Indian Journal of Entomology 65(2): 259-263. [GautamCo2003]
Notes: Studies on the effect of 5-minute insecticidal dips with pirimiphos-methyl (Actellic 50 EC at 10 mg/litre), deltamethrin (Decis 2.8 EC at 5.0 ml/litre), and chlorpyriphos+dimethoate (Salut at 5.0 ml/litre) on pink hibiscus mealy bug, M. hirsutus, infesting four species of tropical commercial cut flowers, i.e. ginger lily (Alpinia purpurata), Heliconia psittacorum, Anthurium andraeanum and orchids (Laeliocattleya canhamianaalba), revealed 100 per cent kill of all stages of the pest within six hours. However, on the 7th day after treatments medium phytotoxicity was observed on flowers dipped in deltamethrin and chlorpyriphos+dimethoate while slight (2.1 to 3.0 score at phytotoxicity scale of 1-5) in pirimiphos-methyl. The shelf-life of these flowers treated with pirimiphos-methyl was not affected as these could be utilized for 7-10 days at par with the control at 27-31 deg C. Interestingly, none of the insecticides affected shelf-life of A. andraeanum while other flowers suffered a lot. Hence, dipping of these cut flowers with pirimiphos-methyl was recommended as a quarantine security for the resumption of inter and intra regional trade in the Caribbean which suffered due to accidental introduction of the mealy bug.

Gavrilov, I.A. 2003. Legless mealybugs (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) from Russia and neighbouring countries. Annales Zoologici (Warsaw) 53(3): 205-209. [Gavril2003]
Notes: Keys and annotated lists of species of genera Chaetococcus Maskell, Porisaccus Hendricks et Kosztarab and Antonina Signoret from Russia and neighbouring countries are reported. A new species, Antonina evelynae sp. nov., is described from Sochi (Black Sea coast of Russian Caucasus). Lectotypes of Antonina vera Borchsenius and Chaetococcus turanicus Borchsenius are designated.

Gavrilov, I.A. 2003a. [On the fauna and systematics of scale insects (Homoptera, Coccinea) of the middle zone of European Russia.] (In Russian; Summary In English). Entomologicheskoe Obozrenye 82(1): 106-115 [Gavril2003a]
Notes: A list of 58 species is given, one species is described as new to science. Longicoccus divnogoricus, sp.n., differs from the congeners in the presence of dorsal conical setae and the convex, sclerotized circuli. The taxonomy and biology of some species are discussed. A new synonymy is established: Trionymus perrisli (Signoret, 1875) = T. implicatus (Borchsenius, 1975), syn. n.

Gavrilov, I.A. 2004. [Scale insects (Homoptera, Coccinae) of the Volga area.] (In Russian; Summary In English). Entomologicheskoe Obozrenye 83(3): 523-529. [Gavril2004]
Notes: An annotated list of 45 species is given. 29 species from this list are noted as new for the region and one species is described as new to science. Perystrix gen. n. differs from the similar genus Phenacoccus Cockerell in the presence of long thin setae in cerarii instead of conical setae and the presence of pairs of lands (1 tubular duct + 1 multilocular disc pore) on dorsum. The type species of this monotypic genus, Perystrix ulmaria sp. n., has been collected in Volgograd Province from a trunk of Ulmus sp.

Germain, J.F. 2002 (2001). Scale insects (Homoptera: Coccoidea) from import interception in France (1997-2001). Bollettino di Zoologia Agraria e di Bachicoltura (Milano) 33(3): 504. [Germai2002]
Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS IX International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at The University of Padua, Italy, Sept. 2-8, 2001.] [abstract of poster] A list is given of the species of Coccoidea which have been intercepted on plants imported in France during the period 1997-2001, with data on host plants on which the insects were intercepted, country of origin and year of interception. Two notable species are Aulacaspis yasumatsui and Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi. Other species mentioned include Aonidiella aurantii, Chrysomphalus aonidum, Coccus pseudomagnoliarum, Delottococcus euphorbiae, Dysmicoccus multivorus, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Parasaissetia nigra and Planococcus citri.

Germain, J.-F. & Bertaux, F. 2003. [Parasaissetia nigra, unrecognized host on the Côte d'Azur.] Parasaissetia nigra, hôte méconnu sur la Côte d'Azur. (In French). PHM Revue Horticole No. 447: 42-44. [GermaiBe2003]
Notes: This species, previously known as Saissetia nigra, has been established for many years in France. The origin, distribution, plant hosts, biology, ecology, morphological characteristics, phytosanitary risk, and economic impact are discussed.

Germain, J.-F., Matile-Ferrero, D., Picart, J.-L., Delvare, G. & Piron, M. 2002. Inventory of scale insects in tropical green houses in France and knowledge of their parasitic Hymenoptera, previous to development of biological control. (In French; Summary In English). 253-260 In: [Sixth International Conference on Pests in Agriculture. Vol. 1.] Sixième Conférence Internationale sur les Ravageurs en Agriculture. Tome 1. AGRO, Montpellier. 350 pp. [GermaiMaPi2002]
Notes: [Conference held 4-6 December, 2002 in Montpellier, France.] There are numerous tropical greenhouses containing rare plant species at risk of scale insect outbreaks. This paper surveys both scale insects and their parasitic Hymenoptera and to facilitate biological control. Scale species discussed include Aspidiotus nerii, Balanococcus diminutus, Bambusaspis bambusae, B. miliaris, Ceroplastes sinensis, Chrysomphalus aonidum, C. bromeliae, C. dictyospermi, Coccus hesperidum, C. longulus, Diaspis boisduvalii, D. echinocacti, Dysmicoccus grassii, Fiorinia coronata, F. fioriniae, Furchadaspis zamiae, Hemiberlesia cyanophylli, H. lataniae, H. rapax, Opuntiaspis philococcus, Ovaticoccus agavium, Pinnaspis aspidistrae, P. buxi, P. strachani, Planococcus citri, Protopulvinaria pyriformis, Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli, P. major, P. pentagona, Pseudococcus longispinus, P. viburni, Rhizoecus dianthi, Saissetia coffeae and S. oleae.

Germain, J.-F., Matile-Ferrero, D., Piron, M. & Picart, J.L. 2003. [Greenhouse mealybugs in France: an illustrated inventory. 1. Asterolecaniidae and Coccidae.] Cochenilles sous serres en France: inventaire illustré. 1. - Les Asterolecaniidae et les Coccidae. (In French). Phytoma No. 561: 21-23. [GermaiMaPi2003]
Notes: This paper presents nine of the 38 mealybug species from five different families, two Asterolecaniidae (Bambusaspis bambusae and B. miliaris) and seven Coccidae (Ceroplastes sinensis, Coccus hesperidum, C. longulus, Eucalymnatus tesselatus (tessellatus?), Protopulvinaria pyriformis, Saissetia coffeae and S. oleae).

Germain, J.F. & Streito, J.C. 2004. [Phenacoccus madeirensis Green, 1923 (Pseudococcidae), Protopulvinaria longivalvata Green, 1909 (Coccidae) and Bemisia giffardi (Kontinski, 1907) (Aleyrodidae), new introductions for Martinique (Hem.).] (In French). Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France 109(2): 223-224. [GermaiSt2004]
Notes: [Original title: Phenacoccus madeirensis Green, 1923 (Pseudococcidae), Protopulvinaria longivalvata Green, 1909 (Coccidae) et Bemisia giffardi (Kontinski, 1907) (Aleyrodidae), nouvelles introductions pour la Martinique (Hem.).] Brief review of these species; notes on origins, distributions and hosts.

Gertsson, C.A. 2002. Carulaspis juniperi (Bouche): en ny dansk sköldlus (Hemiptera, Coccoidea). [Carulaspis juniperi (Bouché) - a new Danish scale insect (Hemiptera: Coccoidea).] insect (Hemiptera: Coccoidea). (In Swedish). Entomologiske Meddelelser 70(2): 112. [Gertss2002]
Notes: The specimens were found on Juniperus chinensis in the Botanical Garden at the Danish Agricultural University, Copenhagen.

Gharizadeh, E. & Hesami, S. 2003. Report of Metastenus concinnus (Hym.: Pteromalidae) parasitoid of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri in Iran. (In English; Summary In Persian). Journal of Entomological Society of Iran 22(2): 85-86. [GharizHe2003]
Notes: In studies carried out in 2002 to evaluate the efficacy of C. montrouzieri on citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) in Chalus, Iran, some specimens of a parasitic wasp, identified as M. concinnus, emerged. This is the first record of this species from Iran.

Glynn, C. & Herms, D.A. 2004. Local adaptation in pine needle scale (Chionaspis pinifoliae): Natal and novel host quality as tests for specialization within and among red and Scots pine. Environmental Entomology 33(3): 748-755. [GlynnHe2004]
Notes: Intraspecific variation in herbivore fitness can generate populations locally adapted to different host species, or even individual plants. To test for occurrence of deme formation, local host species adaptation, and interspecific variation in host quality, we quantified survival and fecundity of pine needle scale, Chionaspis pinifoliae (Fitch), on red (Pinus resinosa Ait.) and Scots pine (P. sylvestris L.) in unmanipulated populations, as well as intra- and interspecific reciprocal host transfer experiments. Intraspecific transplants generated no evidence for deme formation on red or Scots pine as scale performance on natal and conspecific hosts did not differ, possibly because host uniformity and proximity may not have generated requisite environmental heterogeneity and genetic isolation. We did observe evidence for local adaptation to Scots, but not red pine. Survival of scales originating on Scots was 6 times higher on conspecific hosts relative to scales transferred from red to Scots pine; their fecundity was also higher, but the effect was not as strong. However, parental effects also contributed to this pattern, at least partially. In all experiments, Scots pine was a much better host than red pine, which is consistent with previous hypotheses that the long coevolutionary history between pine needle scale and red pine has selected for host defenses. These results add to previous studies that question the importance of deme selection in interactions between scales and trees, but do suggest that bottom-up effects contribute substantially to the variation in pine needle scale population dynamics frequently observed on different host species.

Godfrey, K.E., Daane, K.M., Bentley, W.J., Gill, R.J. & Malakar-Kuenen, R. 2002. Mealybugs in California vineyards (Publication 21612). University of California, Agriculture & Natural Resources, Oakland, California. 16 pp. [GodfreDaBe2002]
Notes: Identification key, description of damage, photographs, chemical and biological control are discussed pertaining to the grape mealybug, obscure mealybug, longtailed mealybug, vine mealybug, citrus mealybug and pink hibiscus mealybug.

Godse, S.K. 2002. An annotated list of pests infesting cashew in Konkan Region of Maharashtra. Cashew 16(3): 15-20. [Godse2002]
Notes: Since 1982, various stages of pests infesting cashew crops and their predators have been collected from the Regional Fruit Research Station, Vengurle, Maharashtra, India. A total of 47 pests were collected. Of these, tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii), flower thrips (Rhynchothrips raoensis [Liothrips raoensis], Scirtothrips dorsalis, Liothrips sp. and Haplothrips sp.) and stem and root borers (Plocaederus ferrugineus, P. obesus and Batocera rufomaculata) were observed as major pests. Apple and nut borer (Nephopteryx [Nephopterix] sp.), mealy bugs (Ferrisia virgata and Planococcoides robustus), shoot tip larva (Hypatima haligramma), leaf and blossom webbers (Macalla moncusalis [Lamida moncusalis] and Orthaga exvinacea) and leafminer (Acrocercops syngramma) were secondary important pests. Ten natural enemies were recorded during this survey. Heavy predation with chrysopa, particularly Meloida sp., was observed on mealy bugs. A list of pests of cashew crops and their natural enemies observed in Maharashtra, India is provided.

Godse, S.K. & Bhole, S.R. 2003. Mango mealy bug fauna of Konkan Region of Maharashtra. Insect Environment 9(4): 157 pp. [GodseBh2003]
Notes: During a survey in Vengurle, Maharashtra, India, seven species of mealybugs were collected on mango (Perissopneumon sp., Ferrisia virgata, Planococcoides robustus, Rastrococcus invadens, Planococcus sp., Cataenococcus sp. and Icerya aegyptiaca). Of these, Ferrisia virgata and Perissopneumon sp. were observed causing considerable economic damage.

Golan, K. 2003. Observations on the biology and management of Parthenolecanium fletcheri (Cockerell) (Hemiptera, Coccidae). (In English; Summary In Lithuanian). Sodininkyste ir Darzininkyste 22(3): 164-170. [Golan2003]
Notes: Studies on the biology of Fletcher scale, Parthenolecanium fletcheri, were conducted during 1997-98 on Thuja sp. growing in the botanical garden of the Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin, Poland. Fletcher scale developed one generation per year and the second-instar larvae overwintered. Two year-long studies pointed to the differences existing between the dates of occurrence of particular developmental stages of the species. The date of the appearance of eggs, larvae and females was, to a large extent, dependent on temperature. The optimum date for the chemical control of Fletcher scale was between 14 and 21 July in 1997 and between 3 and 10 July in 1998.

Golan, K. & Drabik, E.G.